Geneza 29
1 Iacov a pornit la drum, şi s-a dus în ţara celor ce locuiesc la Răsărit.
2 S-a uitat înainte, şi iată că pe câmp era o fântână; şi lângă ea erau trei turme de oi, cari se odihneau; căci la fântâna aceasta obicinuiau ciobanii să-şi adape turmele. Şi piatra de pe gura fântânii era mare.
3 Toate turmele se strângeau acolo; ciobanii prăvăleau piatra de pe gura fântânii, adăpau turmele, şi apoi puneau piatra iarăş la loc pe gura fântânii.
4 Iacov a zis păstorilor: ,,Fraţilor, de unde sânteţi?`` ,,Din Haran,`` au răspuns ei.
5 El le-a zis: ,,Cunoaşteţi pe Laban, fiul lui Nahor?`` ,,Îl cunoaştem,`` i-au răspuns ei.
6 El le-a zis: ,,Este sănătos?`` ,,Sănătos``, au răspuns ei. Şi tocmai atunci venea Rahela, fata lui, cu oile.
7 El a zis: ,,Iată, soarele este încă sus, şi-i prea devreme ca să strângeţi vitele: adăpaţi oile, apoi duceţi-vă şi paşteţi-le iarăş.``
8 Ei au răspuns: ,,Nu putem, până nu se vor strânge toate turmele; atunci se prăvăleşte piatra de pe gura fântânii, şi vom adăpa oile.``
9 Pe când le vorbea el încă, vine Rahela cu oile tatălui său; căci ea le păzea.
10 Când a văzut Iacov pe Rahela, fata lui Laban, fratele mamei sale, şi turma lui Laban, fratele mamei sale, s-a apropiat, a prăvălit piatra de pe gura fântânii, şi a adăpat turma lui Laban, fratele mamei sale.
11 Apoi Iacov a sărutat pe Rahela, şi a început să plângă tare.
12 Iacov a spus Rahelei că este rudă cu tatăl ei, că este fiul Rebecii. Şi ea a dat fuga de a spus tatălui său.
13 Cum a auzit Laban de Iacov, fiul sorei sale, i-a alergat înainte, l-a îmbrăţişat, l-a sărutat, şi l-a adus în casă. Iacov a istorisit lui Laban toate cele întâmplate.
14 Şi Laban i-a zis: ,,Cu adevărat, tu eşti os din oasele mele, şi carne din carnea mea!`` Iacov a stat la Laban o lună.
15 Apoi Laban a zis lui Iacov: ,,Fiindcă eşti rudă cu mine, să-mi slujeşti oare degeaba? Spune-mi ce simbrie vrei?``
16 Laban însă avea două fete: cea mai mare se numea Lea, şi cea mai mică Rahela.
17 Lea avea ochii slabi; dar Rahela era frumoasă la statură şi mândră la faţă.
18 Iacov iubea pe Rahela, şi a zis: ,,Îţi voi sluji şapte ani pentru Rahela, fata ta cea mai mică.``
19 Şi Laban a răspuns: ,,Mai bine să ţi-o dau ţie, decât s-o dau altuia. Rămâi la mine!``
20 Astfel Iacov a slujit şapte ani pentru Rahela; şi anii aceştia i s-au părut ca vreo câteva zile, pentrucă o iubea.
21 În urmă Iacov a zis lui Laban: ,,Dă-mi nevasta, căci mi s-a împlinit sorocul, ca să intru la ea.``
22 Laban a adunat pe toţi oamenii locului şi a făcut un ospăţ.
23 Seara, a luat pe fiică-sa Lea, şi a adus-o la Iacov, care s-a culcat cu ea.
24 Şi Laban a dat ca roabă fetei sale Lea pe roaba sa Zilpa.
25 A doua zi dimineaţă, iată că era Lea. Atunci Iacov a zis lui Laban: ,,Ce mi-ai făcut? Nu ţi-am slujit oare pentru Rahela? Pentru ce m-ai înşelat?``
26 Laban a răspuns: ,,În locul acesta nu-i obicei să se dea cea mai tânără înaintea celei mai mari.
27 Isprăveşte săptămâna cu aceasta, şi-ţi vom da şi pe cealaltă pentru slujba, pe care o vei mai face la mine alţi şapte ani.``
28 Iacov a făcut aşa, şi a isprăvit săptămâna cu Lea; apoi Laban i-a dat de nevastă pe fiică-sa Rahela.
29 Şi Laban a dat ca roabă fetei sale Rahela, pe roaba sa Bilha.
30 Iacov a intrat şi la Rahela, pe care o iubea mai mult decât pe Lea; şi a mai slujit la Laban alţi şapte ani.
31 Domnul a văzut că Lea nu era iubită; şi a făcut-o să aibă copii, pe când Rahela era stearpă.
32 Lea a rămas însărcinată, şi a născut un fiu, căruia i-a pus numele Ruben (Vedeţi fiu); ,,căci``, a zis ea, ,,Domnul a văzut mâhnirea mea, şi acum bărbatul meu are să mă iubească negreşit.``
33 A rămas iarăş însărcinată, şi a născut un fiu; şi a zis: ,,Domnul a auzit că nu eram iubită, şi mi-a dat şi pe acesta.`` De aceea, i-a pus numele Simeon (Ascultare).
34 Iar a rămas însărcinată, şi a născut un fiu; şi a zis: ,,De data aceasta, bărbatul meu se va alipi de mine, căci i-am născut trei fii.`` De aceea i-a pus numele Levi (Alipire).
35 A rămas iarăş însărcinată, şi a născut un fiu; şi a zis: ,,De data aceasta, voi lăuda pe Domnul.`` Deaceea i-a pus numele Iuda (Lăudat fie Domnul). Şi a încetat să mai nască.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":40849,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68475,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96101,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123727,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bilhah (Person)","title_en":"Bilhah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated from about the same time as the Genesis 29 events. Jacob’s son Reuben was later guilty of incest with Bilhah (35:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated from about the same time as the Genesis 29 events. Jacob’s son Reuben was later guilty of incest with Bilhah (35:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILHAH (Person) Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated fro...","summary_en":"BILHAH (Person) Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated fro...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6775,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City","title_en":"City","content_ro":"<h3>CITY<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandAntiquity\">Origin and Antiquity<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriate for a never-ceasing search for food. The contrast between settled city life and the nomadic experience is illustrated by a NT reference to the seminomadic Abraham: “He looked forward to the city which has foundations, whose builder and maker is God” (Heb 11:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Biblical City<\/h5>\n<p>The first biblical reference to a city is in Genesis 4:17. The Hebrew verb indicates that Cain “was building” the city. Probably he did not complete it, nor did he permanently reside there; he had earlier been condemned to a vagabond’s existence (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The Genesis account, affirming that city life came early in human existence, is internally consistent. The first human offspring, Cain and Abel, were involved in food production (Gn 4:2). Cain was an agriculturist, and Abel tended domesticated flocks. Genesis 4 shows both the prerequisite of food production and the resulting specialization. With Jabal, tentmaking was associated (v 20); with Jubal, music (v 21); and with Tubal-Cain, metalworking (v 22).<\/p>\n<h5>Archaeological Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>The testimony of archaeology generally agrees with an early date for the origin of cities. The oldest city thus far discovered in Canaan was Jericho. Using carbon-14 analysis of wood materials from the site, Kathleen Kenyon assigned a date prior to 7000 <span>BC<\/span>. Although less than 10 acres (4 hectares), it was a well-developed city with an impressive wall 6 feet (1.8 meters) thick and a round stone tower almost 30 feet (9 meters) high equipped with an inside staircase from top to bottom.<\/p>\n<p>Jericho seems to be 3,000 years older than other Canaanite cities. Most of the great Sumerian cities such as Ur, Ish, Lagah, and Uruk were founded later, in the fourth or early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LocationandName\">Location and Name<\/p>\n<h5>Topographical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>There were four primary considerations in the selection of a site for a city.<\/p>\n<p>1. The topographical situation of the ancient city had to contribute to its defense. A city built on a natural hill tended to be less vulnerable than one in the valley. Substantial advantage was given to the defenders if an enemy was forced to attack up an incline.<\/p>\n<p>The topography of Jerusalem illustrates the factor of security in the selection of a site. Although surrounded by higher mountains (Ps 125:2), Jerusalem originally was established on a limestone ridge protected on the east by the deep Kidron Valley and on the west by the equally formidable Tyropoean Valley. The two valleys met, thus affording Jerusalem protection from the south. To complete the security, walls were constructed around the city, with special emphasis on the northern side, where Jerusalem was otherwise exposed (cf. 2 Sm 5:6).<\/p>\n<li>2. A water source conveniently located was an absolute necessity for a city’s existence. The city spring or well became the center of social intercourse, particularly for the women, who were traditionally the water carriers. Biblical examples of socializing at the village well are numerous (Gn 29:1-12; 1 Kgs 1:38-39).<\/li>\n<p>In general, water sources were located in valleys, so the nearest spring to a city was frequently outside the walls. If an attacking enemy seized the water source, a city could be forced to surrender when the water supply stored within the walls ran dry. In Jerusalem, King Hezekiah constructed a water tunnel to neutralize the impending attack of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:30). His amazing engineering feat, more than 1,700 feet (518 meters) long and over 2,500 years old, can still be seen by visitors to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>3. Every city needed adequate food for its inhabitants. Ancient agriculturalists lived in a village or city and walked each day to their fields. The existence of a city, therefore, depended upon nearby cultivable fields adequate to meet the needs of the population.<\/li>\n<li>4. To facilitate importation of raw materials and exportation of finished products, proximity to local and international roads was desirable if not imperative. The important cities of the Bible were located along primary arteries of commerce.<\/li>\n<p>The relative importance of these four factors has changed over the centuries. With the appearance of strong nation-states such as Rome, cities could depend upon standing armies and thus give up their inconvenient hilltop sites. Development of plastered cisterns and aqueducts made possible the founding of cities some distance from water sources; for example, Caesarea, built by Herod the Great, was 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) from Mt Carmel’s springs. Trade routes shifted with changing international conditions, causing the demise of some cities and the development of others.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CITY<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandAntiquity\">Origin and Antiquity<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriate for a never-ceasing search for food. The contrast between settled city life and the nomadic experience is illustrated by a NT reference to the seminomadic Abraham: “He looked forward to the city which has foundations, whose builder and maker is God” (Heb 11:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Biblical City<\/h5>\n<p>The first biblical reference to a city is in Genesis 4:17. The Hebrew verb indicates that Cain “was building” the city. Probably he did not complete it, nor did he permanently reside there; he had earlier been condemned to a vagabond’s existence (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The Genesis account, affirming that city life came early in human existence, is internally consistent. The first human offspring, Cain and Abel, were involved in food production (Gn 4:2). Cain was an agriculturist, and Abel tended domesticated flocks. Genesis 4 shows both the prerequisite of food production and the resulting specialization. With Jabal, tentmaking was associated (v 20); with Jubal, music (v 21); and with Tubal-Cain, metalworking (v 22).<\/p>\n<h5>Archaeological Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>The testimony of archaeology generally agrees with an early date for the origin of cities. The oldest city thus far discovered in Canaan was Jericho. Using carbon-14 analysis of wood materials from the site, Kathleen Kenyon assigned a date prior to 7000 <span>BC<\/span>. Although less than 10 acres (4 hectares), it was a well-developed city with an impressive wall 6 feet (1.8 meters) thick and a round stone tower almost 30 feet (9 meters) high equipped with an inside staircase from top to bottom.<\/p>\n<p>Jericho seems to be 3,000 years older than other Canaanite cities. Most of the great Sumerian cities such as Ur, Ish, Lagah, and Uruk were founded later, in the fourth or early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LocationandName\">Location and Name<\/p>\n<h5>Topographical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>There were four primary considerations in the selection of a site for a city.<\/p>\n<p>1. The topographical situation of the ancient city had to contribute to its defense. A city built on a natural hill tended to be less vulnerable than one in the valley. Substantial advantage was given to the defenders if an enemy was forced to attack up an incline.<\/p>\n<p>The topography of Jerusalem illustrates the factor of security in the selection of a site. Although surrounded by higher mountains (Ps 125:2), Jerusalem originally was established on a limestone ridge protected on the east by the deep Kidron Valley and on the west by the equally formidable Tyropoean Valley. The two valleys met, thus affording Jerusalem protection from the south. To complete the security, walls were constructed around the city, with special emphasis on the northern side, where Jerusalem was otherwise exposed (cf. 2 Sm 5:6).<\/p>\n<li>2. A water source conveniently located was an absolute necessity for a city’s existence. The city spring or well became the center of social intercourse, particularly for the women, who were traditionally the water carriers. Biblical examples of socializing at the village well are numerous (Gn 29:1-12; 1 Kgs 1:38-39).<\/li>\n<p>In general, water sources were located in valleys, so the nearest spring to a city was frequently outside the walls. If an attacking enemy seized the water source, a city could be forced to surrender when the water supply stored within the walls ran dry. In Jerusalem, King Hezekiah constructed a water tunnel to neutralize the impending attack of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:30). His amazing engineering feat, more than 1,700 feet (518 meters) long and over 2,500 years old, can still be seen by visitors to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>3. Every city needed adequate food for its inhabitants. Ancient agriculturalists lived in a village or city and walked each day to their fields. The existence of a city, therefore, depended upon nearby cultivable fields adequate to meet the needs of the population.<\/li>\n<li>4. To facilitate importation of raw materials and exportation of finished products, proximity to local and international roads was desirable if not imperative. The important cities of the Bible were located along primary arteries of commerce.<\/li>\n<p>The relative importance of these four factors has changed over the centuries. With the appearance of strong nation-states such as Rome, cities could depend upon standing armies and thus give up their inconvenient hilltop sites. Development of plastered cisterns and aqueducts made possible the founding of cities some distance from water sources; for example, Caesarea, built by Herod the Great, was 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) from Mt Carmel’s springs. Trade routes shifted with changing international conditions, causing the demise of some cities and the development of others.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CITY The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages. Origin and Antiquity Practical Prerequisites The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriat...","summary_en":"CITY The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages. Origin and Antiquity Practical Prerequisites The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriat...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13577,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18236,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23978,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maiden Maid","title_en":"Maiden Maid","content_ro":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","summary_en":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29529,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the East*, People","title_en":"of the East*, People","content_ro":"<h3>PEOPLE OF THE EAST*<\/h3>\n<p>Tribes located east and northeast of Canaan, many of them overtly hostile to the Jews. Genesis 29:1 provides the first reference to these peoples. Jacob, en route to Haran, crossed through territory designated as “the land of the people of the east.”<\/p>\n<p>The comprehensiveness of the term is evident in the way it is used to refer to nomads (Ez 25:10) or Mesopotamians (1 Kgs 4:30). The term also occurs in association with specific tribes, such as the Amalekites (Jgs 6:3), Ammonites (Ez 25:4), Edomites (Is 11:14), Kedarites (Jer 49:28), Midianites (Jgs 6:33), and Moabites (Ez 25:10).<\/p>\n<p>The most distinguished OT personality linked to the term is the patriarch Job, who is called the greatest man among all the people of the east (Jb 1:3). Job’s homeland, the land of Uz, was probably in the vicinity of Edom to the southeast of the Dead Sea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEOPLE OF THE EAST*<\/h3>\n<p>Tribes located east and northeast of Canaan, many of them overtly hostile to the Jews. Genesis 29:1 provides the first reference to these peoples. Jacob, en route to Haran, crossed through territory designated as “the land of the people of the east.”<\/p>\n<p>The comprehensiveness of the term is evident in the way it is used to refer to nomads (Ez 25:10) or Mesopotamians (1 Kgs 4:30). The term also occurs in association with specific tribes, such as the Amalekites (Jgs 6:3), Ammonites (Ez 25:4), Edomites (Is 11:14), Kedarites (Jer 49:28), Midianites (Jgs 6:33), and Moabites (Ez 25:10).<\/p>\n<p>The most distinguished OT personality linked to the term is the patriarch Job, who is called the greatest man among all the people of the east (Jb 1:3). Job’s homeland, the land of Uz, was probably in the vicinity of Edom to the southeast of the Dead Sea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEOPLE OF THE EAST* Tribes located east and northeast of Canaan, many of them overtly hostile to the Jews. Genesis 29:1 provides the first reference to these peoples. Jacob, en route to Haran, crossed through territory designated as “the land of the people of the east.” The comprehensiveness of the term is evident in the way it is used to refer to nomads (Ez 25:10) or Mesopotamians (1 Kgs 4:30). The term also occurs in association with specific tribes, such as the Amalekites (Jgs 6:3), Ammoni...","summary_en":"PEOPLE OF THE EAST* Tribes located east and northeast of Canaan, many of them overtly hostile to the Jews. Genesis 29:1 provides the first reference to these peoples. Jacob, en route to Haran, crossed through territory designated as “the land of the people of the east.” The comprehensiveness of the term is evident in the way it is used to refer to nomads (Ez 25:10) or Mesopotamians (1 Kgs 4:30). The term also occurs in association with specific tribes, such as the Amalekites (Jgs 6:3), Ammoni...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43273,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","summary_en":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43274,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","summary_en":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","summary_en":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","summary_en":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","summary_en":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","summary_en":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1–31:55<\/strong> These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites suffered under their oppressors, but they also flourished, becoming a great nation of twelve large tribes and escaping with great riches.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","summary_en":"29:1–31:55 These chapters tell how God kept his promise by abundantly blessing Jacob with family and possessions. God also disciplined Jacob, leaving him to struggle with Laban for many years. Laban was Jacob’s match in deception, and thus a means of correction. • The story of Jacob and Laban parallels Israel’s later sojourn in Egypt. Jacob struggled while serving his uncle but finally emerged with a large family (the founders of the twelve tribes) and great wealth. In Egypt, the Israelites s...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:1<\/strong> <em>Jacob hurried on:<\/em> The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","summary_en":"29:1 Jacob hurried on: The Hebrew text says that he “picked up his feet” as if he felt the wind at his back; he continued his journey with fresh enthusiasm. His changed outlook was the direct result of the vision he received at Bethel, a marvelous revelation that God was going to protect and bless him. He now sought the fulfillment of God’s promises to him, not just an escape from Esau. Jacob’s attitude had become positive and magnanimous to the point of being naive and vulnerable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62744,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Shepherd","title_en":"The Shepherd","content_ro":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","summary_en":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90370,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Shepherd","title_en":"The Shepherd","content_ro":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","summary_en":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117996,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Shepherd","title_en":"The Shepherd","content_ro":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","summary_en":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145622,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Shepherd","title_en":"The Shepherd","content_ro":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Shepherd<\/h3>\n<p>In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening.<\/p>\n<p>The word <em>shepherd<\/em> became a common term for a ruler. The kings of Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were often referred to as shepherds who protected their people. This metaphorical use is also prevalent in the Old Testament (Num 27:17; 1 Kgs 22:17; Jer 10:21; 23:1-2; Ezek 34:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God is pictured as the Shepherd of Israel, concerned for every aspect of his people’s welfare (Gen 49:24; Pss 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11). God himself would provide for his flock (Jer 23:3; 31:10; Ezek 34:11-22), and he promised to provide faithful shepherds who showed concern for his people (Jer 3:15; 23:4). When Israel’s early leaders proved to be unfaithful shepherds, God intervened and appointed his servant David as a faithful shepherd to lead them. He later promised that he would establish David’s offspring as shepherd over them (see Ezek 34:23-24). By the time of the prophet Jeremiah, <em>shepherd<\/em> began to be used with reference to the coming Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Jesus referred to himself as the Shepherd (Matt 25:31-33; Mark 14:27; John 10:1-30). He is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11-18; see also Heb 13:20).<\/p>\n<p>The leaders of the church are also called shepherds (Eph 4:11, translated “pastors”)—God gives them to the church to care for his people as a shepherd does their sheep, leading and teaching them in the ways of God. They are to be faithful shepherds until the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, appears to lead his people directly (1 Pet 5:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:1-10; Num 27:16-18; 2 Sam 7:7; 1 Kgs 22:17; 1 Chr 11:2; Pss 23:1-6; 77:20; 80:1; Isa 40:11; 44:28; 56:10-11; Jer 10:21; 25:34-36; Ezek 34:1-31; Mic 7:14; Zech 10:2b-3; 11:4-17; 13:7; Matt 2:6; 18:12-14; 26:31; John 10:1-16; 1 Pet 2:25; 5:1-4; Jude 1:12; Rev 7:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","summary_en":"The Shepherd In the Jewish economy, the shepherd who tended a flock of sheep or goats held a position of importance. Shepherding was fundamental to ancient Near Eastern society. The shepherd’s task was to lead the flock out of the fold each morning (John 10:2-4), to find grass and water for the flock, to protect them from wild animals (Amos 3:12), to look for and restore those that strayed (Ezek 34:8; Matt 18:12), and to return the flock to the fold every evening. The word shepherd became a c...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":38329,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Well","title_en":"Well","content_ro":"<h3>WELL<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent conflict (Gn 21:25-30; 26:19-22; 2 Kgs 3:19). Successfully digging a well and defending one’s water rights often served as an important determinant of property rights (Gn 21:25-30; 29:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Good wells were generally considered signs of God’s providence (Gn 16:14; 21:19; Nm 21:16-18). Biblical writers therefore compared the water of spring-fed wells to God’s provision of salvation for his people (Is 12:3; Jn 4:14). The distinction between the relatively poor quality of water in cisterns that captured rainwater and the high quality of those wells that tapped springs of “living” (i.e., flowing) water helps clarify the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman when Jesus offered her “living water” (Jn 4:10-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cistern; Jacob’s Well.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WELL<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent conflict (Gn 21:25-30; 26:19-22; 2 Kgs 3:19). Successfully digging a well and defending one’s water rights often served as an important determinant of property rights (Gn 21:25-30; 29:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Good wells were generally considered signs of God’s providence (Gn 16:14; 21:19; Nm 21:16-18). Biblical writers therefore compared the water of spring-fed wells to God’s provision of salvation for his people (Is 12:3; Jn 4:14). The distinction between the relatively poor quality of water in cisterns that captured rainwater and the high quality of those wells that tapped springs of “living” (i.e., flowing) water helps clarify the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman when Jesus offered her “living water” (Jn 4:10-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cistern; Jacob’s Well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WELL Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent c...","summary_en":"WELL Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent c...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43275,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","summary_en":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","summary_en":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","summary_en":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:2-12<\/strong> Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","summary_en":"29:2-12 Jacob’s meeting Rachel at the well was providentially timed by the sovereign God who was leading Jacob to fulfillment of the promises (cp. 24:12-20). The well was a reminder of God’s blessing (cp. 16:13-14; 21:19; 26:19-25, 33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":26861,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahor (Person)","title_en":"Nahor (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","summary_en":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":40712,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68338,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95964,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123590,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12007,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":40702,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68328,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95954,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123580,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32301,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>RACHEL<\/h3>\n<p>Beautiful younger daughter of Laban; she was the favorite wife of Jacob. He first met her as he arrived at Haran in Paddan-aram. There he assisted her by attending to the needs of Rachel’s father’s sheep, removing a stone from the mouth of a well in order to water them (Gn 29:10). Jacob loved Rachel exceedingly and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. His seven years’ service seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively reneged on his bargain and required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel for his wife. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (30:1). Consequently, she gave her servant, Bilhah, to Jacob in order to have children. Thus, through this commonly accepted ancient custom, Dan and Naphtali were born. In time, Rachel herself conceived and bore Joseph (vv 22-25). After this, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (Gn 35:16, 19). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb there, a landmark known even in the days of Saul (1 Sm 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded as those who built up the house of Israel (Ru 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity. Later, Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words in Herod’s slaughter of the male infants (Mt 2:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RACHEL<\/h3>\n<p>Beautiful younger daughter of Laban; she was the favorite wife of Jacob. He first met her as he arrived at Haran in Paddan-aram. There he assisted her by attending to the needs of Rachel’s father’s sheep, removing a stone from the mouth of a well in order to water them (Gn 29:10). Jacob loved Rachel exceedingly and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. His seven years’ service seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively reneged on his bargain and required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel for his wife. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (30:1). Consequently, she gave her servant, Bilhah, to Jacob in order to have children. Thus, through this commonly accepted ancient custom, Dan and Naphtali were born. In time, Rachel herself conceived and bore Joseph (vv 22-25). After this, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (Gn 35:16, 19). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb there, a landmark known even in the days of Saul (1 Sm 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded as those who built up the house of Israel (Ru 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity. Later, Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words in Herod’s slaughter of the male infants (Mt 2:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RACHEL Beautiful younger daughter of Laban; she was the favorite wife of Jacob. He first met her as he arrived at Haran in Paddan-aram. There he assisted her by attending to the needs of Rachel’s father’s sheep, removing a stone from the mouth of a well in order to water them (Gn 29:10). Jacob loved Rachel exceedingly and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. His seven years’ service seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban decept...","summary_en":"RACHEL Beautiful younger daughter of Laban; she was the favorite wife of Jacob. He first met her as he arrived at Haran in Paddan-aram. There he assisted her by attending to the needs of Rachel’s father’s sheep, removing a stone from the mouth of a well in order to water them (Gn 29:10). Jacob loved Rachel exceedingly and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. His seven years’ service seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban decept...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43276,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","summary_en":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","summary_en":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","summary_en":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:10<\/strong> In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • <em>Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock:<\/em> Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","summary_en":"29:10 In contrast to the lazy, unhelpful shepherds (29:7-8), Jacob is portrayed as generous, industrious, and energetic. • Jacob . . . watered his uncle’s flock: Laban’s flocks would flourish under Jacob’s care.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":12012,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22208,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Peace* Kiss, Kiss","title_en":"of Peace* Kiss, Kiss","content_ro":"<h3>KISS, KISS OF PEACE*<\/h3>\n<p>Common salutation symbolizing love and fellowship. In the Bible, kissing is referred to in a wide variety of contexts. In addition to its ordinary expression among relatives (Gn 29:11; 33:4), its sensual aspect is noted (Prv 7:6-13; Sg 1:2). It is well attested as an act of homage (1 Sm 10:1; Jb 31:27), although such expressions may be heinous in God’s sight (1 Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2). Hypocrisy, even betrayal, may accompany a kiss (Mt 26:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Five NT texts refer to a “holy kiss,” called later in church liturgy a “kiss of peace” (Rom 16:16; 1 Cor 16:20; 2 Cor 13:12; 1 Thes 5:26; 1 Pt 5:14). Peter speaks of a “kiss of love” and mentions peace in conjunction with it. Although the practice is neither described nor limited by Scripture, the kiss was evidently exchanged between Christians as a pledge of brotherly friendship and fidelity (1 Thes 5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the generations following the apostolic era, the kiss of peace came to occupy an established place in liturgical worship. In the latter part of the second century, Justin Martyr spoke of the exchange of kisses throughout the congregation following the conclusion of prayer. Eventually, the church placed the ceremony immediately prior to Holy Communion. Later on, the actual kiss was largely replaced by a simple bow. Other variant forms of the practice are still observed in various churches.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KISS, KISS OF PEACE*<\/h3>\n<p>Common salutation symbolizing love and fellowship. In the Bible, kissing is referred to in a wide variety of contexts. In addition to its ordinary expression among relatives (Gn 29:11; 33:4), its sensual aspect is noted (Prv 7:6-13; Sg 1:2). It is well attested as an act of homage (1 Sm 10:1; Jb 31:27), although such expressions may be heinous in God’s sight (1 Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2). Hypocrisy, even betrayal, may accompany a kiss (Mt 26:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Five NT texts refer to a “holy kiss,” called later in church liturgy a “kiss of peace” (Rom 16:16; 1 Cor 16:20; 2 Cor 13:12; 1 Thes 5:26; 1 Pt 5:14). Peter speaks of a “kiss of love” and mentions peace in conjunction with it. Although the practice is neither described nor limited by Scripture, the kiss was evidently exchanged between Christians as a pledge of brotherly friendship and fidelity (1 Thes 5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the generations following the apostolic era, the kiss of peace came to occupy an established place in liturgical worship. In the latter part of the second century, Justin Martyr spoke of the exchange of kisses throughout the congregation following the conclusion of prayer. Eventually, the church placed the ceremony immediately prior to Holy Communion. Later on, the actual kiss was largely replaced by a simple bow. Other variant forms of the practice are still observed in various churches.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KISS, KISS OF PEACE* Common salutation symbolizing love and fellowship. In the Bible, kissing is referred to in a wide variety of contexts. In addition to its ordinary expression among relatives (Gn 29:11; 33:4), its sensual aspect is noted (Prv 7:6-13; Sg 1:2). It is well attested as an act of homage (1 Sm 10:1; Jb 31:27), although such expressions may be heinous in God’s sight (1 Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2). Hypocrisy, even betrayal, may accompany a kiss (Mt 26:48-49). Five NT texts refer to a “ho...","summary_en":"KISS, KISS OF PEACE* Common salutation symbolizing love and fellowship. In the Bible, kissing is referred to in a wide variety of contexts. In addition to its ordinary expression among relatives (Gn 29:11; 33:4), its sensual aspect is noted (Prv 7:6-13; Sg 1:2). It is well attested as an act of homage (1 Sm 10:1; Jb 31:27), although such expressions may be heinous in God’s sight (1 Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2). Hypocrisy, even betrayal, may accompany a kiss (Mt 26:48-49). Five NT texts refer to a “ho...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43277,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","summary_en":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","summary_en":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","summary_en":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:11<\/strong> <em>Jacob kissed Rachel:<\/em> Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","summary_en":"29:11 Jacob kissed Rachel: Kissing relatives was a proper greeting (29:13; cp. Song 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":40674,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68300,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95926,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123552,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":22371,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":40731,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68357,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95983,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123609,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5500,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bone","title_en":"Bone","content_ro":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","summary_en":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43278,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","summary_en":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43279,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","summary_en":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","summary_en":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","summary_en":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","summary_en":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","summary_en":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14-30<\/strong> Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob aware of his own craftiness. God often brings people into the lives of believers to discipline them. But Jacob was tenacious, and God blessed him abundantly with a large family and many possessions (30:25-43) during this time of service.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","summary_en":"29:14-30 Jacob’s joyful prospect of marriage to the lovely Rachel became an occasion for Laban’s shrewdness and Jacob’s discipline. Jacob and his mother had deceived his father and brother to gain the blessing; now his mother’s brother deceived him. Jacob received a dose of his own duplicity through twenty years of labor, affliction, and deception in Laban’s service (31:38). In God’s justice, people harvest what they plant (Gal 6:7). Laban’s deception was perfectly designed to make Jacob awar...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:14<\/strong> <em>You really are my own flesh and blood!<\/em> Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","summary_en":"29:14 You really are my own flesh and blood! Laban welcomed Jacob into his house and treated him much like a son.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":18237,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24504,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38094,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wages","title_en":"Wages","content_ro":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","summary_en":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":22364,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":40721,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68347,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95973,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123599,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4058,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beauty","title_en":"Beauty","content_ro":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","summary_en":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","summary_en":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":11924,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38090,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wages","title_en":"Wages","content_ro":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","summary_en":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43280,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","summary_en":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","summary_en":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","summary_en":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:18<\/strong> <em>Seven years<\/em> of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and <em>Jacob was in love<\/em> with her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","summary_en":"29:18 Seven years of service was a high bride-price in the ancient world, but Rachel was beautiful (like Sarah and Rebekah), and Jacob was in love with her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":22851,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","summary_en":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":40722,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68348,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95974,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123600,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18238,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22849,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","summary_en":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":3642,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Banquet","title_en":"Banquet","content_ro":"<h3>BANQUET<\/h3>\n<p>Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at harvest (Jgs 9:27; Ru 3:1-3); at the shearing of sheep (1 Sm 25:11; 2 Sm 13:23-29); at the arrival of guests (Gn 19:3); at the weaning of a child (21:8); at coronations (1 Kgs 1:9, 19-25); on various state occasions (Est 1:3-9; 2:18; 5:4-8); and for many other reasons.<\/p>\n<p>Many customs associated with banquets in the ancient Near East are portrayed in the Bible and in extrabiblical literature; wall reliefs and carvings from some excavations also depict banquet scenes. The sequence of banquet preparation in Proverbs 9:2-5, Matthew 22:1-14, and Luke 14:15-24 is also known from the legend of King Keret in Ugaritic literature: (1) preparation of the foods, (2) sending messengers with the invitation and announcement that all is ready, and (3) the presentation of food and wine in order. The prophet Amos portrays a lavish feast and shows the main eating customs (Am 6:4-6). Meals were ordinarily taken while reclining on a couch before a table (Est 1:6; Ez 23:41; Am 6:4; Mt 9:10; Lk 7:49; 14:10, 15).<\/p>\n<p>Banquet imagery is prominent in both Testaments with reference to the kingdom of God. Isaiah foresaw the judgment of the nations and the deliverance of Israel followed by the Lord’s reign over his people (Is 24:23); inauguration of that reign is accompanied by a huge banquet to which all peoples are invited (Is 25:6-8; cf. Lk 13:29). Meals shared following the sacrifice of animals in the OT prefigure that great feast when there will be no more death, tears, or reproach for the people of God (Is 25:7; cf. Rv 21:4). The banquet of the new covenant likewise directs attention to the future, when the redeemed will drink fine wine (Is 25:6) with Christ in the kingdom of God (Lk 22:14-20). By participating in the Lord’s Supper (Communion), all Christians anticipate that great feast.<\/p>\n<p>That future, final banquet in the kingdom of God is also pictured specifically as a wedding feast; all is in readiness, the invitation is issued to many, but few are chosen (Mt 22:1-14). The church looks forward to the marriage feast of the Lamb (Rv 19:7-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANQUET<\/h3>\n<p>Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at harvest (Jgs 9:27; Ru 3:1-3); at the shearing of sheep (1 Sm 25:11; 2 Sm 13:23-29); at the arrival of guests (Gn 19:3); at the weaning of a child (21:8); at coronations (1 Kgs 1:9, 19-25); on various state occasions (Est 1:3-9; 2:18; 5:4-8); and for many other reasons.<\/p>\n<p>Many customs associated with banquets in the ancient Near East are portrayed in the Bible and in extrabiblical literature; wall reliefs and carvings from some excavations also depict banquet scenes. The sequence of banquet preparation in Proverbs 9:2-5, Matthew 22:1-14, and Luke 14:15-24 is also known from the legend of King Keret in Ugaritic literature: (1) preparation of the foods, (2) sending messengers with the invitation and announcement that all is ready, and (3) the presentation of food and wine in order. The prophet Amos portrays a lavish feast and shows the main eating customs (Am 6:4-6). Meals were ordinarily taken while reclining on a couch before a table (Est 1:6; Ez 23:41; Am 6:4; Mt 9:10; Lk 7:49; 14:10, 15).<\/p>\n<p>Banquet imagery is prominent in both Testaments with reference to the kingdom of God. Isaiah foresaw the judgment of the nations and the deliverance of Israel followed by the Lord’s reign over his people (Is 24:23); inauguration of that reign is accompanied by a huge banquet to which all peoples are invited (Is 25:6-8; cf. Lk 13:29). Meals shared following the sacrifice of animals in the OT prefigure that great feast when there will be no more death, tears, or reproach for the people of God (Is 25:7; cf. Rv 21:4). The banquet of the new covenant likewise directs attention to the future, when the redeemed will drink fine wine (Is 25:6) with Christ in the kingdom of God (Lk 22:14-20). By participating in the Lord’s Supper (Communion), all Christians anticipate that great feast.<\/p>\n<p>That future, final banquet in the kingdom of God is also pictured specifically as a wedding feast; all is in readiness, the invitation is issued to many, but few are chosen (Mt 22:1-14). The church looks forward to the marriage feast of the Lamb (Rv 19:7-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANQUET Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at har...","summary_en":"BANQUET Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at har...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12117,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24519,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":24530,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43281,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","summary_en":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","summary_en":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","summary_en":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:23-26<\/strong> Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • <em>It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn:<\/em> Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the older sister, pretended to be the younger sister to get a husband. God gave the deceiver a dose of his own deception as a discipline in his life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","summary_en":"29:23-26 Like Isaac, Jacob was plied with food and wine (cp. 27:25), deprived of sight in the darkness (cp. 27:1), baffled by clothing (cp. 27:15), and misled by touch (cp. 27:23). The marriage had been consummated (29:23; see 2:24), so Jacob was bound to Leah. • It’s not our custom here to marry off a younger daughter ahead of the firstborn: Laban’s words are a reminder of what Jacob did when he, the younger son, pretended to be his older brother to gain the blessing (ch 27). Now Leah, the o...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":39332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zilpah","title_en":"Zilpah","content_ro":"<h3>ZILPAH<\/h3>\n<p>Mother of Jacob’s sons Gad and Asher. Laban had given her to his daughter Leah as a handmaid (Gn 29:24; 46:18). Later, at Leah’s insistence, she became Jacob’s concubine for the purpose of bearing sons (30:9; 37:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZILPAH<\/h3>\n<p>Mother of Jacob’s sons Gad and Asher. Laban had given her to his daughter Leah as a handmaid (Gn 29:24; 46:18). Later, at Leah’s insistence, she became Jacob’s concubine for the purpose of bearing sons (30:9; 37:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZILPAH Mother of Jacob’s sons Gad and Asher. Laban had given her to his daughter Leah as a handmaid (Gn 29:24; 46:18). Later, at Leah’s insistence, she became Jacob’s concubine for the purpose of bearing sons (30:9; 37:2).","summary_en":"ZILPAH Mother of Jacob’s sons Gad and Asher. Laban had given her to his daughter Leah as a handmaid (Gn 29:24; 46:18). Later, at Leah’s insistence, she became Jacob’s concubine for the purpose of bearing sons (30:9; 37:2).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":40723,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68349,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95975,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123601,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12302,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Firstborn","title_en":"Firstborn","content_ro":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","summary_en":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22850,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","summary_en":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24501,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":24521,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":43282,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","summary_en":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","summary_en":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","summary_en":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:28-30<\/strong> After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an <em>additional seven years<\/em> (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","summary_en":"29:28-30 After the bridal week ended (29:27), Jacob also received Rachel as his wife, though he then would have to work an additional seven years (cp. 31:41). Laban seemed to have gained the upper hand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":4930,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bilhah (Person)","title_en":"Bilhah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated from about the same time as the Genesis 29 events. Jacob’s son Reuben was later guilty of incest with Bilhah (35:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated from about the same time as the Genesis 29 events. Jacob’s son Reuben was later guilty of incest with Bilhah (35:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILHAH (Person) Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated fro...","summary_en":"BILHAH (Person) Servant given by Laban to his daughter Rachel when she married Jacob (Gn 29:29). Realizing her own childlessness, Rachel gave Bilhah to her husband as a concubine and accepted their two sons as her own, naming them Dan and Naphtali (30:3-8; 35:25; 46:25). Archaeological investigation has confirmed the custom of a barren wife’s providing a concubine to guarantee children to her husband. Such an arrangement is mentioned in marriage contract documents dug up at Nuzi and dated fro...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":40611,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40724,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68237,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68350,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95863,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95976,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123489,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123602,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9781,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Divorce","title_en":"Divorce","content_ro":"<h3>DIVORCE<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical provisions regulating divorce are closely bound up with the various definitions given to marriage within the successive phases of God’s progressive revelation in history.<\/p>\n<p>In the Genesis Creation account, marriage is defined as the “one flesh” union established by God in the context of a sinless environment (Gn 2:24). Given such conditions, the dissolution of the marriage relationship was inconceivable. During his ministry, Jesus affirmed this aspect of God’s original design for marriage. He described the implications of the “one flesh” relationship as the abrogation of the separatedness of the spouses and the creation of an inviolable union (Mt 19:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOldTestamentsViewonDivorce\">The Old Testament’s View on Divorce<\/p>\n<p>The disruptions brought about by the fall had grievous consequences for the male\/female relationship. Having allowed sin to sever their primary dependency on God, man and woman became respectively subject to the elements from which they had been originally made. Man became subject to the dust of the ground whence he had come (Gn 2:7; 3:19), and woman became subject to the man from whom she had been formed (2:22; 3:16). Prior to the fall, man and woman had enjoyed a relationship of equality as cosharers in the divine image (1:27) and as partners in the divine mandate to exercise dominion over creation (v 28). After the fall man became ruler over woman, and woman became subject to man (3:16).<\/p>\n<p>As a result of these new conditions, man assumed rights of disposition over woman that he did not possess prior to the fall. The “one flesh” relation was violated when the right of rulership opened the way for the male ruler to multiply the number of his female subjects. This disparity between male and female resulted in the practice of polygamy (Gn 4:19; 16:3; 29:30) and of serial monogamy, which required the termination of each successive marriage by an act of divorce (Dt 24:1-4). Thus, the emergence of the practice of divorce appeared as the inevitable consequence of the principle of male rulership. Neither rulership nor divorce was part of God’s original design for the marriage relationship. The Mosaic regulation on divorce was a concession made by God to the fallen condition of mankind (Mt 19:8). Characteristically, the option of divorce was a right available only to the male rulers. As subjects of their male rulers, wives became the victims of divorce. Men could divorce their wives; women could not divorce their husbands.<\/p>\n<p>As unfair as it may seem, the Deuteronomic provisions for divorce were actually intended to offer a modicum of protection for its female victims. A husband had to justify a divorce action against his wife by citing something indecent about her. He was to give his divorced wife a bill of divorce that accounted for her marriage to him (Dt 24:1). Moreover, a divorced husband was forbidden to remarry his ex-wife after her subsequent marriage, since his original divorce was viewed as a defilement of her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>Although the Mosaic dispositions on divorce were granted as a divine concession to Israel’s hardness of heart, the OT emphatically states that God hates divorce (Mal 2:16). The right of divorce was grudgingly granted as an accommodation to the principle of male rulership that had resulted from the fall. But God’s original design, reflected in the “one flesh” marital relation, remained the standard for the union of man and woman in marriage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingonDivorce\">Jesus’ Teaching on Divorce<\/p>\n<p>Inasmuch as Christ’s ministry of redemption signaled a return to God’s original purposes in Creation, the old covenant regulations on divorce were abrogated in the Christian community. In order to justify the inviolability of the marriage bond among his followers, Jesus directed them to the creational model. Referring negatively to the intervening Mosaic allowance for divorce, Jesus upheld God’s original creation order by stating that “from the beginning it was not so” (Mt 19:8). Christ repudiated the fall and affirmed the Creation design.<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 5:31-32 Jesus explicitly abrogated the Mosaic legislation that allowed men to divorce their wives. He viewed the practice as a violation of the integrity of women. Adulterous men who divorce their wives reduce them to the status of whores, using them as commodities to be passed around through the expediency of easy divorce. By divorcing their wives, men treat them as adulteresses. By marrying a woman discarded from a previous marriage, a man perpetuates the demeaning process and becomes guilty of adultery.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus deliberately withdrew from men the ruler’s right of discarding a wife at will and reinstated the creational pattern of the lifelong “one flesh” union. His disciples understood his intent accurately. But the principle of male privilege was so deeply ingrained in their mentality that they declared the freedom available in celibacy preferable to a commitment to lifelong monogamous marriage (Mt 19:10).<\/p>\n<p>Not only did Jesus reaffirm the validity of the “one flesh” union for the community of redemption, but the NT reinforced the inviolability of the marriage bond by defining it as an earthly copy of the relationship between Christ and the church (Eph 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Despite such strong sanctions for the permanency of the marriage bond, the NT permits divorce as an exception intended to protect the innocent spouse in the case of immorality and desertion. Jesus made exceptions that established the right of a spouse wronged by an unfaithful mate to press for divorce (Mt 5:32; 19:9). Obviously, the wronged spouse has the option of maintaining the marriage bond despite the breach of commitment by the unfaithful mate. But in view of the exception allowed by Scripture, the obligation to maintain or reinstate the disrupted marriage may not be imposed upon the innocent spouse.<\/p>\n<p>The other exception that justifies divorce, according to the NT, is desertion. Although the provisions of 1 Corinthians 7:15 refer primarily to desertion by an unbelieving spouse, it should be noted that a believer guilty of desertion is to be treated as an unbeliever (1 Tm 5:8). Behavior equivalent to the abandonment of the marriage relationship constitutes a breach of conjugal commitment and becomes subject to the provision stated in 1 Corinthians 7:15.<\/p>\n<p>In either case, adultery or desertion, the aggrieved party has the right to seek divorce from the offending spouse and, having obtained it, becomes again a single person. Should repentance and reconciliation fail to restore the violated union, the aggrieved spouse is not bound to the marriage. According to Scripture, a person who is not bound is free to remarry, but only “in the Lord,” meaning to another Christian (1 Cor 7:39). The injunction for a single person who does not have the gift of celibacy to marry (v 9) applies to a person formerly married but who has become single by a scripturally legitimate divorce. In keeping with Christ’s teaching in Mark 10:11-12 and Luke 16:18, the remarriage of believers may not be approved when the divorce has been used as a means of changing mates, since such intent makes the divorce adulterous.<\/p>\n<p>Many factors usually combine to destroy a marriage; therefore, the church must deal with each case of divorce and remarriage on an individual basis, taking into account God’s inexhaustible capacity to forgive sin and to restore broken lives. Obviously, the scriptural restrictions on divorce do not apply to believers whose broken marriages predate their conversion, since God’s forgiveness wipes clean the sin of their pre-Christian past and makes them new creatures in Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIVORCE<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical provisions regulating divorce are closely bound up with the various definitions given to marriage within the successive phases of God’s progressive revelation in history.<\/p>\n<p>In the Genesis Creation account, marriage is defined as the “one flesh” union established by God in the context of a sinless environment (Gn 2:24). Given such conditions, the dissolution of the marriage relationship was inconceivable. During his ministry, Jesus affirmed this aspect of God’s original design for marriage. He described the implications of the “one flesh” relationship as the abrogation of the separatedness of the spouses and the creation of an inviolable union (Mt 19:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOldTestamentsViewonDivorce\">The Old Testament’s View on Divorce<\/p>\n<p>The disruptions brought about by the fall had grievous consequences for the male\/female relationship. Having allowed sin to sever their primary dependency on God, man and woman became respectively subject to the elements from which they had been originally made. Man became subject to the dust of the ground whence he had come (Gn 2:7; 3:19), and woman became subject to the man from whom she had been formed (2:22; 3:16). Prior to the fall, man and woman had enjoyed a relationship of equality as cosharers in the divine image (1:27) and as partners in the divine mandate to exercise dominion over creation (v 28). After the fall man became ruler over woman, and woman became subject to man (3:16).<\/p>\n<p>As a result of these new conditions, man assumed rights of disposition over woman that he did not possess prior to the fall. The “one flesh” relation was violated when the right of rulership opened the way for the male ruler to multiply the number of his female subjects. This disparity between male and female resulted in the practice of polygamy (Gn 4:19; 16:3; 29:30) and of serial monogamy, which required the termination of each successive marriage by an act of divorce (Dt 24:1-4). Thus, the emergence of the practice of divorce appeared as the inevitable consequence of the principle of male rulership. Neither rulership nor divorce was part of God’s original design for the marriage relationship. The Mosaic regulation on divorce was a concession made by God to the fallen condition of mankind (Mt 19:8). Characteristically, the option of divorce was a right available only to the male rulers. As subjects of their male rulers, wives became the victims of divorce. Men could divorce their wives; women could not divorce their husbands.<\/p>\n<p>As unfair as it may seem, the Deuteronomic provisions for divorce were actually intended to offer a modicum of protection for its female victims. A husband had to justify a divorce action against his wife by citing something indecent about her. He was to give his divorced wife a bill of divorce that accounted for her marriage to him (Dt 24:1). Moreover, a divorced husband was forbidden to remarry his ex-wife after her subsequent marriage, since his original divorce was viewed as a defilement of her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>Although the Mosaic dispositions on divorce were granted as a divine concession to Israel’s hardness of heart, the OT emphatically states that God hates divorce (Mal 2:16). The right of divorce was grudgingly granted as an accommodation to the principle of male rulership that had resulted from the fall. But God’s original design, reflected in the “one flesh” marital relation, remained the standard for the union of man and woman in marriage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingonDivorce\">Jesus’ Teaching on Divorce<\/p>\n<p>Inasmuch as Christ’s ministry of redemption signaled a return to God’s original purposes in Creation, the old covenant regulations on divorce were abrogated in the Christian community. In order to justify the inviolability of the marriage bond among his followers, Jesus directed them to the creational model. Referring negatively to the intervening Mosaic allowance for divorce, Jesus upheld God’s original creation order by stating that “from the beginning it was not so” (Mt 19:8). Christ repudiated the fall and affirmed the Creation design.<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 5:31-32 Jesus explicitly abrogated the Mosaic legislation that allowed men to divorce their wives. He viewed the practice as a violation of the integrity of women. Adulterous men who divorce their wives reduce them to the status of whores, using them as commodities to be passed around through the expediency of easy divorce. By divorcing their wives, men treat them as adulteresses. By marrying a woman discarded from a previous marriage, a man perpetuates the demeaning process and becomes guilty of adultery.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus deliberately withdrew from men the ruler’s right of discarding a wife at will and reinstated the creational pattern of the lifelong “one flesh” union. His disciples understood his intent accurately. But the principle of male privilege was so deeply ingrained in their mentality that they declared the freedom available in celibacy preferable to a commitment to lifelong monogamous marriage (Mt 19:10).<\/p>\n<p>Not only did Jesus reaffirm the validity of the “one flesh” union for the community of redemption, but the NT reinforced the inviolability of the marriage bond by defining it as an earthly copy of the relationship between Christ and the church (Eph 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Despite such strong sanctions for the permanency of the marriage bond, the NT permits divorce as an exception intended to protect the innocent spouse in the case of immorality and desertion. Jesus made exceptions that established the right of a spouse wronged by an unfaithful mate to press for divorce (Mt 5:32; 19:9). Obviously, the wronged spouse has the option of maintaining the marriage bond despite the breach of commitment by the unfaithful mate. But in view of the exception allowed by Scripture, the obligation to maintain or reinstate the disrupted marriage may not be imposed upon the innocent spouse.<\/p>\n<p>The other exception that justifies divorce, according to the NT, is desertion. Although the provisions of 1 Corinthians 7:15 refer primarily to desertion by an unbelieving spouse, it should be noted that a believer guilty of desertion is to be treated as an unbeliever (1 Tm 5:8). Behavior equivalent to the abandonment of the marriage relationship constitutes a breach of conjugal commitment and becomes subject to the provision stated in 1 Corinthians 7:15.<\/p>\n<p>In either case, adultery or desertion, the aggrieved party has the right to seek divorce from the offending spouse and, having obtained it, becomes again a single person. Should repentance and reconciliation fail to restore the violated union, the aggrieved spouse is not bound to the marriage. According to Scripture, a person who is not bound is free to remarry, but only “in the Lord,” meaning to another Christian (1 Cor 7:39). The injunction for a single person who does not have the gift of celibacy to marry (v 9) applies to a person formerly married but who has become single by a scripturally legitimate divorce. In keeping with Christ’s teaching in Mark 10:11-12 and Luke 16:18, the remarriage of believers may not be approved when the divorce has been used as a means of changing mates, since such intent makes the divorce adulterous.<\/p>\n<p>Many factors usually combine to destroy a marriage; therefore, the church must deal with each case of divorce and remarriage on an individual basis, taking into account God’s inexhaustible capacity to forgive sin and to restore broken lives. Obviously, the scriptural restrictions on divorce do not apply to believers whose broken marriages predate their conversion, since God’s forgiveness wipes clean the sin of their pre-Christian past and makes them new creatures in Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIVORCE Biblical provisions regulating divorce are closely bound up with the various definitions given to marriage within the successive phases of God’s progressive revelation in history. In the Genesis Creation account, marriage is defined as the “one flesh” union established by God in the context of a sinless environment (Gn 2:24). Given such conditions, the dissolution of the marriage relationship was inconceivable. During his ministry, Jesus affirmed this aspect of God’s original design f...","summary_en":"DIVORCE Biblical provisions regulating divorce are closely bound up with the various definitions given to marriage within the successive phases of God’s progressive revelation in history. In the Genesis Creation account, marriage is defined as the “one flesh” union established by God in the context of a sinless environment (Gn 2:24). Given such conditions, the dissolution of the marriage relationship was inconceivable. During his ministry, Jesus affirmed this aspect of God’s original design f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43283,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","summary_en":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","summary_en":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","summary_en":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:30<\/strong> Jacob <em>loved<\/em> Rachel <em>much more than Leah:<\/em> Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","summary_en":"29:30 Jacob loved Rachel much more than Leah: Favoritism was an ongoing cause of dysfunction in Jacob’s family (cp. 25:28; 37:3). Jacob’s favoritism had lasting effects: his family was never together, and their descendants, the tribes of Israel, were rarely unified.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":40703,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40725,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68329,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68351,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95955,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95977,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123581,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rachel","title_en":"Rachel","content_ro":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rachel<\/h3>\n<p>Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her.<\/p>\n<p>Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rachel. Unlike Leah, Rachel was barren in the early years of her marriage to Jacob (29:31; 30:1). She gave her servant Bilhah to Jacob in order to have children by her, and Dan and Naphtali were born (30:3-8). In time, Rachel conceived and bore Joseph (30:22-24), and soon after, Jacob took his wives, children, and possessions away from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (35:16-20). Jacob set up a pillar over her tomb that was a landmark even in Saul’s time (1 Sam 10:2). Rachel and Leah are highly regarded for having built up the house of Israel (Ruth 4:11). In Jeremiah 31:15, Rachel is pictured as crying for her children being carried off into captivity, and Matthew recalls Jeremiah’s words at Herod’s slaughter of the male infants around Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth (Matt 2:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:6–30:24; 31:4-19, 31-35; 33:1-7; 35:16-20; 46:19-22; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","summary_en":"Rachel Rachel, Laban’s beautiful younger daughter, was Jacob’s favorite wife. He first met her as he arrived at Paddan-aram in Haran, when he helped her remove the stone from a well and watered her father’s sheep (Gen 29:10). Jacob agreed to work seven years for Laban in order to have Rachel as his wife, and the time seemed like only a few days because of his great love for her. Laban deceptively required Jacob to marry Leah, his older, less attractive daughter, before finally giving him Rach...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123603,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Leah<\/h3>\n<p>Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister.<\/p>\n<p>After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (29:21-25), claiming that custom required the older daughter to marry first (29:26). Leah was less attractive than her sister (29:17), and Jacob did not love her (29:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel induced him to work another seven years to marry her. Because Jacob favored Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah) before Rachel was able to conceive (29:31–30:22). At one point Rachel bargained with Leah for some mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. Leah then conceived and bore her fifth son (30:14-17), increasing her advantage in her rivalry with Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Leah was the mother of two tribes that played particularly significant roles in Israelite history. The tribe of Levi was the tribe of the priesthood, and the tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gen 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Matt 1:1) came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:14-35; 30:9-21; 31:4-16; 33:1-7; 34:1; 46:8-15; 49:31; Ruth 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","summary_en":"Leah Leah was Laban’s first daughter, Jacob’s unloved first wife, and Rachel’s older sister. After Jacob deceived his father Isaac into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gen 27:1-40), Jacob went to his uncle Laban in Mesopotamia to escape Esau’s revenge and find a wife (27:41–28:5). He fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her after seven years of work (29:17-20). After the wedding feast, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah instead of Rachel (2...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5121,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birthright","title_en":"Birthright","content_ro":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","summary_en":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13420,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18240,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22852,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leah","title_en":"Leah","content_ro":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18). When the time for the wedding feast came, Laban deceived Jacob in an apparent scheme to keep his services for seven more years; he gave Leah instead of Rachel to Jacob on the wedding night (vv 21-25). His lame excuse that custom required the giving of the older daughter in marriage before the younger (v 26) was hardly appropriate at that point and certainly should have been explained from the beginning. Leah is described as “weak-eyed,” perhaps to be understood as “dull-eyed,” in contrast with Rachel, who is described as “beautiful and lovely” (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s love for Rachel (Gn 29:20) induced him to agree to work for another seven years in order to receive her also as his wife. Because of the intense rivalry between the two sisters and Jacob’s favoring of Rachel, the Lord blessed Leah with six sons and a daughter (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah) before Rachel was given any children (29:31–30:22). This barrenness became a great burden for Rachel over the years. At one point she bargained with Leah for mandrakes, a plant believed to ensure conception, in exchange for conjugal rights. The result was to increase her sister’s advantage, however, because Leah conceived and bore her fifth son, Issachar (30:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Leah was given the honor of being the mother of the two tribes that played the most significant roles in the history of the nation of Israel. The tribe of Levi became the tribe of the priesthood. The tribe of Judah became the tribe of royalty through which the promised seed (Gn 3:15; 12:2-3; 2 Sm 7:16; Mt 1:1) ultimately came in the person of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","summary_en":"LEAH Laban’s daughter, the wife of Jacob, and the older sister of Rachel. After deceiving his father, Isaac, into giving him the blessing intended for Esau (Gn 27:5-40), Jacob left home and went to his uncle Laban (27:43; 28:2) in distant Mesopotamia, in order to find a wife (27:46–28:2) and escape the revenge of Esau, who had determined to kill him (27:41-42). Here he fell in love with his cousin Rachel and arranged with her father to marry her in exchange for seven years of work (29:17-18)....","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43284,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","summary_en":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43285,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","summary_en":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","summary_en":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","summary_en":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","summary_en":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","summary_en":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31–30:24<\/strong> The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through her despite Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel and her children. Despite the tension and jealousy resulting from Laban’s treachery and Jacob’s favoritism, God still built Jacob’s family and brought about the births of the tribal ancestors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","summary_en":"29:31–30:24 The rivalry between these sisters explains much of the later rivalry among their sons, and then among the tribes, just as the rivalry between Jacob and Laban foreshadowed conflict between Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 10:8-19; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 2 Kgs 5:1–8:29; 13:1-25; Isa 7:1-9). • God champions the cause of the poor and oppressed; he exalted Leah, the despised first wife, as the first to become a mother. Judah’s kingly tribe and Levi’s priestly line came through...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:31-35<\/strong> Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but <em>Rachel could not conceive<\/em>. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","summary_en":"29:31-35 Leah’s first four sons were born in rapid succession, but Rachel could not conceive. She was barren, like Sarah and Rebekah (cp. 16:1; 25:21; see also 1 Sam 1:1-28; Luke 1:5-25). • Each name is a memorable wordplay on Leah’s experience and hopes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59979,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87605,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115231,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142857,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":32856,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reuben (Person)","title_en":"Reuben (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>REUBEN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safety of Benjamin at immense risk to his own family. Yet at Jacob’s pronouncement of blessing, Reuben is declared unstable and his birthright forfeited (49:3-4). He fathered four sons (1 Chr 5:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reuben (Place); Reuben, Tribe of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REUBEN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safety of Benjamin at immense risk to his own family. Yet at Jacob’s pronouncement of blessing, Reuben is declared unstable and his birthright forfeited (49:3-4). He fathered four sons (1 Chr 5:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reuben (Place); Reuben, Tribe of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REUBEN (Person) Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safet...","summary_en":"REUBEN (Person) Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safet...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32865,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Reuben","title_en":"Tribe of Reuben","content_ro":"<h3>REUBEN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Reuben, the eldest of Jacob’s sons (Gn 29:32). The tribe of Reuben usually receives the place of honor in lists of the tribes, being named first (Nm 13:4). Similarly, in lists of the two and a half tribes residing east of the Jordan, Reuben is always mentioned first (Jos 1:12), though Gad seems to have held a larger portion.<\/p>\n<p>Because of Reuben’s sin (Gn 35:22), his father prophesied that his preeminence among his brothers would disappear (49:4). In spite of the prayer of Deuteronomy 33:6, this disaster did overtake the tribe in later years. In desert days, Reuben’s tribal chief appears with all the others (Nm 1:5), and a spy goes forth from Reuben as with the other tribes (13:4). Reuben has his special place in camping and marching (2:10). Only the spies of Ephraim (Joshua) and Judah (Caleb) are faithful (14:6), but Reuben appears no worse than his brother tribes: all were equal in unbelief.<\/p>\n<p>The revolt of Dathan and Abiram, men of Reuben, against the authority of Moses (Nm 16:1) and possibly against the special position of Levi may be significant. Reuben may be claiming his old primacy, forfeited by sin (Gn 49:3-4). The attempt failed, and God’s judgment was a signal lesson (Nm 16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben was rich in herds of cattle (Nm 32:1) and presumably a powerful tribe. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh asked to remain in the richly timbered and well-watered lands to the east of Jordan, recently conquered from Sihon, the Amorite king, and Og, the ruler of Bashan. This selfish request (for it would involve no sharing in the hard fighting across the Jordan) was rightly denounced by Moses. However, on the promise of the two and a half tribes to bear the brunt of the fighting for their brothers in the west, their request was granted (vv 20-22). They were evidently good soldiers, and Joshua sent them home at the end of the campaign (Jos 22:1-6). Although living east of the Jordan, and separated from their brothers by what was sometimes an insuperable natural obstacle, they had no desire to form an independent state. They showed this by building a great memorial altar at the spot where they crossed the Jordan on their way home (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben does not appear again until the time of Deborah the prophetess. When the clans of Israel rallied to God’s call under Barak to fight Sisera the Canaanite, Reuben did not respond. The wording suggests that Reuben once again was influenced by material possessions, as the tribe had been in the days of the Conquest, when, because of their cattle, they chose the lush lands of Transjordan rather than the rugged hills of Canaan (Nm 32:5). The easy shepherd’s life appealed more to them than warfare on the slopes of Mt Tabor (Jgs 5:16). Also the wording suggests long inconclusive discussions—or even, perhaps, great protestations of bravery and fidelity to God’s cause—that finally led to nothing (v 15). Reuben has not changed; the tribe, like its ancestor, was still “unstable as water” (Gn 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben’s tribal lands, to the southeast of Gad, were probably overrun and occupied by the Moabites at a later date. Certainly the whole area to the east of the Jordan was an area of contention between Israel and Aram later (1 Kgs 22:3). Finally, Transjordan, with the north of Israel, was one of the first areas overrun and devastated by the Assyrians (2 Kgs 15:29). Although Ezekiel, in his vision, speaks of a strip of territory north of Judah for Reuben (Ez 48:6), it could only have been a small remnant, if any, that returned from the exile of the northern kingdom. Indeed, although Reuben finds his place in the list of the redeemed in Revelation (Rv 7:5), no man of Reuben plays a part in the NT.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REUBEN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Reuben, the eldest of Jacob’s sons (Gn 29:32). The tribe of Reuben usually receives the place of honor in lists of the tribes, being named first (Nm 13:4). Similarly, in lists of the two and a half tribes residing east of the Jordan, Reuben is always mentioned first (Jos 1:12), though Gad seems to have held a larger portion.<\/p>\n<p>Because of Reuben’s sin (Gn 35:22), his father prophesied that his preeminence among his brothers would disappear (49:4). In spite of the prayer of Deuteronomy 33:6, this disaster did overtake the tribe in later years. In desert days, Reuben’s tribal chief appears with all the others (Nm 1:5), and a spy goes forth from Reuben as with the other tribes (13:4). Reuben has his special place in camping and marching (2:10). Only the spies of Ephraim (Joshua) and Judah (Caleb) are faithful (14:6), but Reuben appears no worse than his brother tribes: all were equal in unbelief.<\/p>\n<p>The revolt of Dathan and Abiram, men of Reuben, against the authority of Moses (Nm 16:1) and possibly against the special position of Levi may be significant. Reuben may be claiming his old primacy, forfeited by sin (Gn 49:3-4). The attempt failed, and God’s judgment was a signal lesson (Nm 16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben was rich in herds of cattle (Nm 32:1) and presumably a powerful tribe. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh asked to remain in the richly timbered and well-watered lands to the east of Jordan, recently conquered from Sihon, the Amorite king, and Og, the ruler of Bashan. This selfish request (for it would involve no sharing in the hard fighting across the Jordan) was rightly denounced by Moses. However, on the promise of the two and a half tribes to bear the brunt of the fighting for their brothers in the west, their request was granted (vv 20-22). They were evidently good soldiers, and Joshua sent them home at the end of the campaign (Jos 22:1-6). Although living east of the Jordan, and separated from their brothers by what was sometimes an insuperable natural obstacle, they had no desire to form an independent state. They showed this by building a great memorial altar at the spot where they crossed the Jordan on their way home (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben does not appear again until the time of Deborah the prophetess. When the clans of Israel rallied to God’s call under Barak to fight Sisera the Canaanite, Reuben did not respond. The wording suggests that Reuben once again was influenced by material possessions, as the tribe had been in the days of the Conquest, when, because of their cattle, they chose the lush lands of Transjordan rather than the rugged hills of Canaan (Nm 32:5). The easy shepherd’s life appealed more to them than warfare on the slopes of Mt Tabor (Jgs 5:16). Also the wording suggests long inconclusive discussions—or even, perhaps, great protestations of bravery and fidelity to God’s cause—that finally led to nothing (v 15). Reuben has not changed; the tribe, like its ancestor, was still “unstable as water” (Gn 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>Reuben’s tribal lands, to the southeast of Gad, were probably overrun and occupied by the Moabites at a later date. Certainly the whole area to the east of the Jordan was an area of contention between Israel and Aram later (1 Kgs 22:3). Finally, Transjordan, with the north of Israel, was one of the first areas overrun and devastated by the Assyrians (2 Kgs 15:29). Although Ezekiel, in his vision, speaks of a strip of territory north of Judah for Reuben (Ez 48:6), it could only have been a small remnant, if any, that returned from the exile of the northern kingdom. Indeed, although Reuben finds his place in the list of the redeemed in Revelation (Rv 7:5), no man of Reuben plays a part in the NT.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REUBEN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Reuben, the eldest of Jacob’s sons (Gn 29:32). The tribe of Reuben usually receives the place of honor in lists of the tribes, being named first (Nm 13:4). Similarly, in lists of the two and a half tribes residing east of the Jordan, Reuben is always mentioned first (Jos 1:12), though Gad seems to have held a larger portion. Because of Reuben’s sin (Gn 35:22), his father prophesied that his preeminence among his brothers would disappear (49:4). In spite o...","summary_en":"REUBEN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Reuben, the eldest of Jacob’s sons (Gn 29:32). The tribe of Reuben usually receives the place of honor in lists of the tribes, being named first (Nm 13:4). Similarly, in lists of the two and a half tribes residing east of the Jordan, Reuben is always mentioned first (Jos 1:12), though Gad seems to have held a larger portion. Because of Reuben’s sin (Gn 35:22), his father prophesied that his preeminence among his brothers would disappear (49:4). In spite o...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43286,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:32","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","summary_en":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:32","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","summary_en":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:32","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","summary_en":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126164,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:32","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:32<\/strong> <em>Reuben<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">re’uben<\/span>) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ra‘ah be‘onyi<\/span>). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","summary_en":"29:32 Reuben (Hebrew re’uben) sounds like the Hebrew for “He has seen my misery” (ra‘ah be‘onyi). His birth gave Leah consolation from God and hope for Jacob’s love. Jacob seems not to have seen her misery, but God did (cp. 16:14; 24:62; 25:11). The name was a reminder of God’s intervention.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":35404,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Simeon (Person)","title_en":"Simeon (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SIMEON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second of the 12 sons of Jacob (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the second son borne to him by Leah (Gn 29:33). Simeon fathered six sons (Ex 6:15) and settled his family in Egypt with Jacob and his brothers (1:2). He was the founder of the Simeonites (Nm 26:12-14) and one of the 12 tribes of Israel (1:23). He is remembered most for his vengeance on the men of Shechem because of Dinah’s rape (Gn 34:25).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Simeon, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Pious Jew living in Jerusalem who was assured that he would not die before he saw the promised Messiah. Led by the Holy Spirit to the temple, Simeon met Mary and Joseph there, held Jesus in his arms, and prophesied about the Messiah’s coming mission (Lk 2:25-35).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of Jesus in Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of five prophets and teachers mentioned in Acts 13:1 who was serving in the church of Antioch. Simeon was surnamed Niger and was perhaps from Africa. Symeon is a better reading of the Greek in this text.<\/li>\n<li>5. Reference to Simon Peter in Acts 15:14. <em>See<\/em> Peter, The Apostle.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SIMEON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second of the 12 sons of Jacob (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the second son borne to him by Leah (Gn 29:33). Simeon fathered six sons (Ex 6:15) and settled his family in Egypt with Jacob and his brothers (1:2). He was the founder of the Simeonites (Nm 26:12-14) and one of the 12 tribes of Israel (1:23). He is remembered most for his vengeance on the men of Shechem because of Dinah’s rape (Gn 34:25).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Simeon, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Pious Jew living in Jerusalem who was assured that he would not die before he saw the promised Messiah. Led by the Holy Spirit to the temple, Simeon met Mary and Joseph there, held Jesus in his arms, and prophesied about the Messiah’s coming mission (Lk 2:25-35).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of Jesus in Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of five prophets and teachers mentioned in Acts 13:1 who was serving in the church of Antioch. Simeon was surnamed Niger and was perhaps from Africa. Symeon is a better reading of the Greek in this text.<\/li>\n<li>5. Reference to Simon Peter in Acts 15:14. <em>See<\/em> Peter, The Apostle.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SIMEON (Person) 1. Second of the 12 sons of Jacob (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the second son borne to him by Leah (Gn 29:33). Simeon fathered six sons (Ex 6:15) and settled his family in Egypt with Jacob and his brothers (1:2). He was the founder of the Simeonites (Nm 26:12-14) and one of the 12 tribes of Israel (1:23). He is remembered most for his vengeance on the men of Shechem because of Dinah’s rape (Gn 34:25). See also Simeon, Tribe of. 2. Pious Jew living in Jerusalem who was assured tha...","summary_en":"SIMEON (Person) 1. Second of the 12 sons of Jacob (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the second son borne to him by Leah (Gn 29:33). Simeon fathered six sons (Ex 6:15) and settled his family in Egypt with Jacob and his brothers (1:2). He was the founder of the Simeonites (Nm 26:12-14) and one of the 12 tribes of Israel (1:23). He is remembered most for his vengeance on the men of Shechem because of Dinah’s rape (Gn 34:25). See also Simeon, Tribe of. 2. Pious Jew living in Jerusalem who was assured tha...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43287,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","summary_en":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","summary_en":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","summary_en":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126165,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:33<\/strong> Leah named her second son <em>Simeon.<\/em> The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was <em>heard<\/em> (cp. 16:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","summary_en":"29:33 Leah named her second son Simeon. The name suggests that she had cried out to the Lord and was heard (cp. 16:11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":22988,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Levi (Person)","title_en":"Levi (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LEVI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jacob’s third son by Leah (Gn 29:34). The etymology of the name is uncertain. Levi’s name is associated with the tragedy at Shechem, where the male inhabitants of the city were ruthlessly murdered when Levi and Simeon sought to avenge the violation of their sister Dinah by Shechem the Hivite. Jacob condemned the act and before his death pronounced a judgment on Levi’s behavior (49:5-7). According to these words, Levi’s descendants were to be dispersed among the tribes.<\/li>\n<p>The tribe of Levi was composed of the descendants of Levi’s three sons: Gershon (Gershom), Kohath, and Merari. Moses, Aaron, and Miriam traced their genealogy to Kohath (Ex 6:16). The Levites remained faithful to Yahweh at the occasion of the golden calf by Mt Horeb. They were rewarded with the right to special service in and around the tabernacle (ch 32) and later in the temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levi, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Tax collector in Capernaum (Mk 2:14); one of the 12 disciples who was also named Matthew (Mk 2:14; Lk 5:27; cf. Mt 9:9). <em>See<\/em> Matthew (Person).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Melki and ancestor of Jesus (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Simeon and ancestor of Jesus (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>LEVI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jacob’s third son by Leah (Gn 29:34). The etymology of the name is uncertain. Levi’s name is associated with the tragedy at Shechem, where the male inhabitants of the city were ruthlessly murdered when Levi and Simeon sought to avenge the violation of their sister Dinah by Shechem the Hivite. Jacob condemned the act and before his death pronounced a judgment on Levi’s behavior (49:5-7). According to these words, Levi’s descendants were to be dispersed among the tribes.<\/li>\n<p>The tribe of Levi was composed of the descendants of Levi’s three sons: Gershon (Gershom), Kohath, and Merari. Moses, Aaron, and Miriam traced their genealogy to Kohath (Ex 6:16). The Levites remained faithful to Yahweh at the occasion of the golden calf by Mt Horeb. They were rewarded with the right to special service in and around the tabernacle (ch 32) and later in the temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levi, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Tax collector in Capernaum (Mk 2:14); one of the 12 disciples who was also named Matthew (Mk 2:14; Lk 5:27; cf. Mt 9:9). <em>See<\/em> Matthew (Person).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Melki and ancestor of Jesus (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Simeon and ancestor of Jesus (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"LEVI (Person) 1. Jacob’s third son by Leah (Gn 29:34). The etymology of the name is uncertain. Levi’s name is associated with the tragedy at Shechem, where the male inhabitants of the city were ruthlessly murdered when Levi and Simeon sought to avenge the violation of their sister Dinah by Shechem the Hivite. Jacob condemned the act and before his death pronounced a judgment on Levi’s behavior (49:5-7). According to these words, Levi’s descendants were to be dispersed among the tribes. The tr...","summary_en":"LEVI (Person) 1. Jacob’s third son by Leah (Gn 29:34). The etymology of the name is uncertain. Levi’s name is associated with the tragedy at Shechem, where the male inhabitants of the city were ruthlessly murdered when Levi and Simeon sought to avenge the violation of their sister Dinah by Shechem the Hivite. Jacob condemned the act and before his death pronounced a judgment on Levi’s behavior (49:5-7). According to these words, Levi’s descendants were to be dispersed among the tribes. The tr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22997,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Levi","title_en":"Tribe of Levi","content_ro":"<h3>LEVI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at the time (v 30) and his deathbed curse (49:5-7), foretelling that the descendants of Levi and Simeon will be scattered throughout Israel. This does not seem a likely background for God’s priestly tribe, but so it proved to be, for it was as a priestly tribe that Levi was scattered through Israel, while Simeon merely melted into the desert south of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>At first Levi was apparently a “secular” tribe like any other. True, Moses and Aaron were of Levi (Ex 2:1), but no stress is laid on this. Levi’s later position was God’s reward for its costly faithfulness when Israel rebelled against God (32:25-29); this inaugurated the “covenant with Levi” (Nm 18:19). Henceforth the tribe of Levi would be accepted by God instead of Israel’s firstborn sons, who belonged to him by the law of “firstfruits” (3:11-13). Levi, as a tribe, could therefore own no tribal territory: God himself was their inheritance (18:20). However, they were given 48 villages, with their pasturelands, in which to live (Jos 21:1-42). These included the six cities of refuge (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>Since Levi could not amass wealth, the tribe was to be supported by gifts and tithes (Nm 18:21); like the widow, orphan, and stranger, they were commended to the care of God’s people (Dt 14:29). Since they were God’s tribe, Joab was unwilling to include Levi in David’s census (1 Chr 21:6; cf. Nm 1:49). Naturally, Levi did not serve in war except in a religious capacity (2 Chr 20:21). Their service pertained to the meeting tent (Nm 1:50-53) and later the temple (1 Chr 23:25-32). Within Levi the Bible makes a clear distinction between (1) the high priest (sometimes merely called “the priest,” 1 Sm 1:9), who came from one branch of Aaron’s family; (2) the rest of the priests, also of particular families; and (3) a mass of subordinate Levites, who had lesser tasks. In early days they packed and moved the portable tent of meeting (Nm 1:50-51), as well as did other duties; in later days they served as porters and choristers (1 Chr 16:42). The duties of Levi are summarized in Deuteronomy 33:8-11, where oracular guidance and theological instruction are just as important as their priestly duties. It is therefore no surprise that Jehoshaphat later used them as teachers of law (2 Chr 17:7-9). Nevertheless, the ordinary Israelite thought of them primarily as priestly (Jgs 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>Later references to the lasting covenant with Levi are found in Jeremiah 33:20-26 and Malachi 3:3-4. Members of the tribe returned from the exile (Ezr 2:36-42), apparently more coming from the priestly than the wider Levitical section. Barnabas, in NT days, belonged to the tribe of Levi (Acts 4:36). Indeed, among modern Jews, wherever the surname Levy is found, a member of the tribe probably lives on.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEVI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at the time (v 30) and his deathbed curse (49:5-7), foretelling that the descendants of Levi and Simeon will be scattered throughout Israel. This does not seem a likely background for God’s priestly tribe, but so it proved to be, for it was as a priestly tribe that Levi was scattered through Israel, while Simeon merely melted into the desert south of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>At first Levi was apparently a “secular” tribe like any other. True, Moses and Aaron were of Levi (Ex 2:1), but no stress is laid on this. Levi’s later position was God’s reward for its costly faithfulness when Israel rebelled against God (32:25-29); this inaugurated the “covenant with Levi” (Nm 18:19). Henceforth the tribe of Levi would be accepted by God instead of Israel’s firstborn sons, who belonged to him by the law of “firstfruits” (3:11-13). Levi, as a tribe, could therefore own no tribal territory: God himself was their inheritance (18:20). However, they were given 48 villages, with their pasturelands, in which to live (Jos 21:1-42). These included the six cities of refuge (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>Since Levi could not amass wealth, the tribe was to be supported by gifts and tithes (Nm 18:21); like the widow, orphan, and stranger, they were commended to the care of God’s people (Dt 14:29). Since they were God’s tribe, Joab was unwilling to include Levi in David’s census (1 Chr 21:6; cf. Nm 1:49). Naturally, Levi did not serve in war except in a religious capacity (2 Chr 20:21). Their service pertained to the meeting tent (Nm 1:50-53) and later the temple (1 Chr 23:25-32). Within Levi the Bible makes a clear distinction between (1) the high priest (sometimes merely called “the priest,” 1 Sm 1:9), who came from one branch of Aaron’s family; (2) the rest of the priests, also of particular families; and (3) a mass of subordinate Levites, who had lesser tasks. In early days they packed and moved the portable tent of meeting (Nm 1:50-51), as well as did other duties; in later days they served as porters and choristers (1 Chr 16:42). The duties of Levi are summarized in Deuteronomy 33:8-11, where oracular guidance and theological instruction are just as important as their priestly duties. It is therefore no surprise that Jehoshaphat later used them as teachers of law (2 Chr 17:7-9). Nevertheless, the ordinary Israelite thought of them primarily as priestly (Jgs 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>Later references to the lasting covenant with Levi are found in Jeremiah 33:20-26 and Malachi 3:3-4. Members of the tribe returned from the exile (Ezr 2:36-42), apparently more coming from the priestly than the wider Levitical section. Barnabas, in NT days, belonged to the tribe of Levi (Acts 4:36). Indeed, among modern Jews, wherever the surname Levy is found, a member of the tribe probably lives on.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEVI, Tribe of Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2). Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at th...","summary_en":"LEVI, Tribe of Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2). Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at th...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43288,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:34","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","summary_en":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:34","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","summary_en":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:34","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","summary_en":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126166,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:34","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:34<\/strong> Leah named her third son <em>Levi<\/em>, hoping that her <em>husband<\/em> would become “attached” to her since she had <em>given him three sons<\/em>. This hope was not fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","summary_en":"29:34 Leah named her third son Levi, hoping that her husband would become “attached” to her since she had given him three sons. This hope was not fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":40766,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68392,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96018,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123644,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19784,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jew","title_en":"Jew","content_ro":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","summary_en":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20993,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43289,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:35","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","summary_en":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:35","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","summary_en":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:35","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","summary_en":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126167,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 29:35","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 29:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>29:35<\/strong> Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son <em>Judah<\/em> with the sentiment, <em>“I will praise the<\/em> <span>Lord.<\/span><em>”<\/em> She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","summary_en":"29:35 Leah reconciled herself to the reality that nothing would turn Jacob’s affections toward her. She named her fourth son Judah with the sentiment, “I will praise the Lord.” She seems to have given up on Jacob, taking her consolation from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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