Geneza 38
1 În vremea aceea, Iuda a părăsit pe fraţii săi, şi a tras la un om din Adulam, numit Hira.
2 Acolo, Iuda a văzut pe fata unui Cananit, numit Şua; a luat-o de nevastă, şi s-a culcat cu ea.
3 Ea a rămas însărcinată, şi a născut un fiu, pe care l-a numit Er.
4 A rămas iarăş însărcinată, şi a mai născut un fiu, căruia i-a pus numele Onan.
5 A mai născut iarăş un fiu, căruia i-a pus numele Şela; Iuda era la Czib, când a născut ea.
6 Iuda a luat întâiului său născut Er, o nevastă numită Tamar.
7 Er, întâiul născut al lui Iuda, era rău înaintea Domnului; şi Domnul l-a omorât.
8 Atunci Iuda a zis lui Onan: ,,Du-te la nevasta fratelui tău, ia-o de nevastă, ca cumnat, şi ridică sămânţă fratelui tău.``
9 Onan, ştiind că sămânţa aceasta n-are să fie a lui, vărsa sămânţa pe pământ ori de câte ori se culca cu nevasta fratelui său, ca să nu dea sămânţă fratelui său.
10 Ce făcea el n-a plăcut Domnului, care l-a omorât şi pe el.
11 Atunci Iuda a zis norei sale Tamar: ,,Rămâi văduvă în casa tatălui tău, până va creşte fiul meu Şela.`` Zicea aşa ca să nu moară şi Şela ca fraţii lui. Tamar s-a dus, şi a locuit în casa tatălui ei.
12 Au trecut multe zile, şi fata lui Şua, nevasta lui Iuda, a murit. După ce au trecut zilele de jale, Iuda s-a suit la Timna, la cei ce-i tundeau oile, el şi prietenul său Hira, Adulamitul.
13 Au dat de veste Tamarei despre lucrul acesta, şi i-au zis: ,,Iată că socru-tău se suie la Timna, ca să-şi tundă oile.``
14 Atunci ea şi-a lepădat hainele de văduvă, s-a acoperit cu o măhramă, s-a îmbrăcat în alte haine, şi a şezut jos la intrarea în Enaim, pe drumul care duce la Timna; căci vedea că Şela se făcuse mare, şi ea nu-i fusese dată de nevastă.
15 Iuda a văzut-o, şi a luat-o drept curvă, pentru că îşi acoperise faţa.
16 S-a abătut la ea din drum, şi a zis: ,,Lasă-mă să mă culc cu tine!`` Căci n-a cunoscut-o că era noru-sa. Ea a zis: ,,Ce-mi dai ca să te culci cu mine?``
17 El a răspuns: ,,Am să-ţi trimet un ied din turma mea.`` Ea a zis: ,,Îmi dai un zălog, până îl vei trimete?``
18 El a răspuns: ,,Ce zălog să-ţi dau?`` Ea a zis: ,,Inelul tău, lanţul tău, şi toiagul pe care-l ai în mână.`` El i le-a dat. Apoi s-a culcat cu ea; şi ea a rămas însărcinată dela el.
19 Ea s-a sculat, şi a plecat; şi-a scos mahrama şi s-a îmbrăcat iarăş în hainele de văduvă.
20 Iuda a trimes iedul prin prietenul său Adulamitul, ca să scoată zălogul din mânile femeii. Dar acesta n-a găsit-o.
21 A întrebat pe oamenii locului, şi a zis: ,,Unde este curva aceea, care stătea aici la Enaim, pe drum?`` Ei au răspuns: ,,N-a fost nici o curvă aici.``
22 Adulamitul s-a întors la Iuda, şi i-a spus: ,,N-am găsit-o; şi chiar oamenii de acolo au zis: ,,N-a fost nici o curvă aici.``
23 Iuda a zis: ,,Ţină ce a luat, numai să nu ne facem de râs. Iată, am trimes iedul acesta, şi n-ai găsit-o.``
24 Cam după trei luni, au venit şi au spus lui Iuda: ,,Tamar, noru-ta, a curvit, şi a rămas chiar însărcinată în urma curvirii ei.`` Şi Iuda a zis: ,,Scoateţi-o afară ca să fie arsă.``
25 După ce au scos-o afară, ea a trimes să spună socrului său: ,,Dela omul acela, ale cui sânt lucrurile acestea, am rămas eu însărcinată; vezi, te rog, al cui este inelul acesta, lanţurile acestea, şi toiagul acesta.``
26 Iuda le-a cunoscut, şi a zis: ,,Ea este mai puţin vinovată decât mine, fiindcă n-am dat-o de nevastă fiului meu Şela.`` Şi nu s-a mai împreunat cu ea deatunci.
27 Când i-a venit vremea să nască, iată că în pântecele ei erau doi gemeni.
28 Şi în timpul naşterii, unul a scos mâna înainte; moaşa i-a apucat mâna, şi a legat-o cu un fir roş, zicând: ,,Acesta a ieşit cel dintâi.``
29 Dar el a tras mâna înapoi, şi a ieşit frate-său. Atunci moaşa a zis: ,,Ce spărtură ai făcut!`` De aceea i-a pus numele Pereţ (Spărtură).
30 În urmă a ieşit fratele lui, care avea firul roş la mână; de aceea i-au pus numele Zerah (Cărămiziu). Iosif în Egipt.
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Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68385,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). 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Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96011,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123637,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":659,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adullamite Adullam","title_en":"Adullamite Adullam","content_ro":"<h3>ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE<\/h3>\n<p>Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20).<\/p>\n<p>Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:15) and one of 15 cities later fortified by King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:7). After the exiles’ return from captivity in Babylon, Adullam was again resettled by Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:30).<\/p>\n<p>A cave near Adullam figured in several events in David’s life. It was a refuge when he fled from King Saul (1 Sm 22:1) and a stronghold in his war against the Philistines (2 Sm 23:13-17; 1 Chr 11:15-19). The Hebrew superscriptions to Psalms 57 and 142 indicate that David wrote them at the time of his experiences in the cave. Adullam is identified as modern Tell esh-Sheikh Madhkur.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE<\/h3>\n<p>Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20).<\/p>\n<p>Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:15) and one of 15 cities later fortified by King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:7). After the exiles’ return from captivity in Babylon, Adullam was again resettled by Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:30).<\/p>\n<p>A cave near Adullam figured in several events in David’s life. It was a refuge when he fled from King Saul (1 Sm 22:1) and a stronghold in his war against the Philistines (2 Sm 23:13-17; 1 Chr 11:15-19). The Hebrew superscriptions to Psalms 57 and 142 indicate that David wrote them at the time of his experiences in the cave. Adullam is identified as modern Tell esh-Sheikh Madhkur.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20). Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jo...","summary_en":"ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20). Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jo...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13587,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16433,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hirah","title_en":"Hirah","content_ro":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","summary_en":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43422,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","summary_en":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71048,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","summary_en":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","summary_en":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:1-30<\/strong> The story of <em>Judah<\/em> and <em>Tamar<\/em> is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","summary_en":"38:1-30 The story of Judah and Tamar is a carefully placed interlude; it reports what was happening in the family of Judah, who would later rise to prominence, and it shows the beginnings of assimilation with the people of the land to help explain why God sent the family to Egypt (chs 39–47). The Egyptians were strict separatists (43:32); the Israelites would retain their unique identity better in Egypt than in Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59683,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Sexuality","title_en":"Human Sexuality","content_ro":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","summary_en":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87309,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Sexuality","title_en":"Human Sexuality","content_ro":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","summary_en":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114935,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Sexuality","title_en":"Human Sexuality","content_ro":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","summary_en":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142561,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Sexuality","title_en":"Human Sexuality","content_ro":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Sexuality<\/h3>\n<p>When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual intimacy continues to have. Since biblical sexuality is not just physical but has the total person in view, it validates sexual relations only as part of the partners’ permanent mutual commitment to each other’s ultimate good. The Bible speaks of engaging in sexual intercourse as literally “knowing” another person intimately (see study note on Gen 4:1). Since Creation, God’s intended context for sexual activity has been the intimate union of marriage—namely, a permanent and loving heterosexual commitment (Gen 1:27-28; 2:23-24). The sexual relationship cements the marriage bond in an intimacy that may result in reproduction and can continue even when reproduction is no longer possible.<\/p>\n<p>Although sexuality was created before sin, it did not emerge unscathed from human rebellion. Sexuality is a powerful force that is easily corrupted if not carefully channeled (see Lev 18; 1 Thes 4:3-8). Sexual intimacy apart from marital commitment perverts the order that God intended for creation. Incest, for example, violates sexual boundaries (see Lev 18:7-18), collapses family structures (see Gen 19:30-38), and fragments the community. Whereas perverted sexuality causes much harm, tears the community down (see Gen 38:1-30; 39:7-9; Judg 19–20), and exalts the individual (see 2 Sam 13:11-14), biblical sexuality builds up the sexual partners and the community.<\/p>\n<p>Human sexuality has been damaged through our fall into sin (Gen 3), but God has redeemed it through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see 1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:31-33). He restores sexual wholeness in those who trust his work in their lives by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:9-11, 15-20; 1 Thes 4:1-8). Those who commit their sexuality to Christ’s work in their lives can serve as a testament to others of God’s love for his people (Eph 5:25-33).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:27-28; 2:18-25; Lev 18:1-30; Deut 22:13-29; Ruth 4:11-13; 2 Sam 11:2-27; Ps 127:3-5; Eccl 2:8-11; Song 1:8–8:14; Mal 2:15-16; Matt 19:3-12; 1 Cor 6:12–7:40; Eph 5:31-33; 1 Thes 4:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","summary_en":"Human Sexuality When God created the first human beings in his own image, he created them as sexual beings, male and female (Gen 1:27). Through their sexuality, they were to fill and govern the world (1:28) and provide intimate companionship for one another in marriage (2:18-25). Male and female sexuality is central to what it means to be human and is included in God’s declaration of creation as “very good” (1:31). Sexual intimacy united the first man and woman as one, an effect that sexual i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":3974,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bathshua","title_en":"Bathshua","content_ro":"<h3>BATHSHUA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite wife of Judah who bore him three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Bathsheba in 1 Chronicles 3:5. <em>See<\/em> Bathsheba.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BATHSHUA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite wife of Judah who bore him three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Bathsheba in 1 Chronicles 3:5. <em>See<\/em> Bathsheba.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BATHSHUA 1. Canaanite wife of Judah who bore him three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Alternate spelling of Bathsheba in 1 Chronicles 3:5. See Bathsheba.","summary_en":"BATHSHUA 1. Canaanite wife of Judah who bore him three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Alternate spelling of Bathsheba in 1 Chronicles 3:5. See Bathsheba.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35211,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shua","title_en":"Shua","content_ro":"<h3>SHUA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite whose daughter Judah married. She bore Judah three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5, 12). <em>See<\/em> Bathshua #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. Asherite, Heber’s daughter and the sister of Japhlet, Shomer, and Hotham (1 Chr 7:32).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHUA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite whose daughter Judah married. She bore Judah three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5, 12). <em>See<\/em> Bathshua #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. Asherite, Heber’s daughter and the sister of Japhlet, Shomer, and Hotham (1 Chr 7:32).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHUA 1. Canaanite whose daughter Judah married. She bore Judah three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5, 12). See Bathshua #1. 2. Asherite, Heber’s daughter and the sister of Japhlet, Shomer, and Hotham (1 Chr 7:32).","summary_en":"SHUA 1. Canaanite whose daughter Judah married. She bore Judah three sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gn 38:2-5, 12). See Bathshua #1. 2. Asherite, Heber’s daughter and the sister of Japhlet, Shomer, and Hotham (1 Chr 7:32).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35216,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shuah","title_en":"Shuah","content_ro":"<h3>SHUAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. <em>See<\/em> Shua #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Shuhah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHUAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. <em>See<\/em> Shua #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Shuhah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHUAH 1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11). 2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. See Shua #1. 3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. See Shuhah.","summary_en":"SHUAH 1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11). 2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. See Shua #1. 3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. See Shuhah.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":11027,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Er","title_en":"Er","content_ro":"<h3>ER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ER 1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above. 3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","summary_en":"ER 1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above. 3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20994,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":28458,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Onan","title_en":"Onan","content_ro":"<h3>ONAN<\/h3>\n<p>Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ONAN<\/h3>\n<p>Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ONAN Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).","summary_en":"ONAN Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":449,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aczib","title_en":"Aczib","content_ro":"<h3>ACZIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ACZIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ACZIB 1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22). 2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries BC.","summary_en":"ACZIB 1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22). 2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries BC.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kezib","title_en":"Kezib","content_ro":"<h3>KEZIB<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Aczib, a city in Judah’s territory, in Genesis 38:5. <em>See<\/em> Aczib #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEZIB<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Aczib, a city in Judah’s territory, in Genesis 38:5. <em>See<\/em> Aczib #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEZIB Alternate name for Aczib, a city in Judah’s territory, in Genesis 38:5. See Aczib #1.","summary_en":"KEZIB Alternate name for Aczib, a city in Judah’s territory, in Genesis 38:5. See Aczib #1.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34818,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shelah","title_en":"Shelah","content_ro":"<h3>SHELAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Arphaxad’s son and the father of Eber (Gn 10:24; 11:12-15; 1 Chr 1:18). Shelah is listed in Luke’s genealogy of Christ as the son of Cainan the son of Arphaxad (Lk 3:35). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>2. Judah’s third son by Bathshua the Canaanitess. He was born at Kezib, a small town in Judah (Gn 38:5; 1 Chr 2:3). Shelah founded the Shelanite family (Nm 26:20), which should possibly be read instead of “Shilonite” in Nehemiah 11:5; 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHELAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Arphaxad’s son and the father of Eber (Gn 10:24; 11:12-15; 1 Chr 1:18). Shelah is listed in Luke’s genealogy of Christ as the son of Cainan the son of Arphaxad (Lk 3:35). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>\n<li>2. Judah’s third son by Bathshua the Canaanitess. He was born at Kezib, a small town in Judah (Gn 38:5; 1 Chr 2:3). Shelah founded the Shelanite family (Nm 26:20), which should possibly be read instead of “Shilonite” in Nehemiah 11:5; 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHELAH 1. Arphaxad’s son and the father of Eber (Gn 10:24; 11:12-15; 1 Chr 1:18). Shelah is listed in Luke’s genealogy of Christ as the son of Cainan the son of Arphaxad (Lk 3:35). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ. 2. Judah’s third son by Bathshua the Canaanitess. He was born at Kezib, a small town in Judah (Gn 38:5; 1 Chr 2:3). Shelah founded the Shelanite family (Nm 26:20), which should possibly be read instead of “Shilonite” in Nehemiah 11:5; 1 Chronicles 9:5.","summary_en":"SHELAH 1. Arphaxad’s son and the father of Eber (Gn 10:24; 11:12-15; 1 Chr 1:18). Shelah is listed in Luke’s genealogy of Christ as the son of Cainan the son of Arphaxad (Lk 3:35). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ. 2. Judah’s third son by Bathshua the Canaanitess. He was born at Kezib, a small town in Judah (Gn 38:5; 1 Chr 2:3). Shelah founded the Shelanite family (Nm 26:20), which should possibly be read instead of “Shilonite” in Nehemiah 11:5; 1 Chronicles 9:5.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":40772,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68398,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96024,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123650,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21001,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36734,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tamar (Person)","title_en":"Tamar (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TAMAR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Er, the firstborn son of Judah by a Canaanitess. Later, as a widow, Tamar bore two sons to Judah named Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:6-24; 1 Chr 2:4). Tamar preserved the line of Judah through Perez (Ru 4:12), and her name is recorded in the genealogy of Christ (Mt 1:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<li>2. Sister of Absalom and the daughter of David by his wife Maacah, the Geshurite. Through deceit, Tamar was seduced by Amnon, her half brother. In vengeance, Absalom, her full brother, had Amnon murdered at Baal-hazor (2 Sm 13; 1 Chr 3:9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Daughter of Absalom who was noted for her beauty (2 Sm 14:27). She perhaps married Uriel of Gibeah and became the mother of Maacah. <em>See<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Person) #4.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TAMAR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Er, the firstborn son of Judah by a Canaanitess. Later, as a widow, Tamar bore two sons to Judah named Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:6-24; 1 Chr 2:4). Tamar preserved the line of Judah through Perez (Ru 4:12), and her name is recorded in the genealogy of Christ (Mt 1:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<li>2. Sister of Absalom and the daughter of David by his wife Maacah, the Geshurite. Through deceit, Tamar was seduced by Amnon, her half brother. In vengeance, Absalom, her full brother, had Amnon murdered at Baal-hazor (2 Sm 13; 1 Chr 3:9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Daughter of Absalom who was noted for her beauty (2 Sm 14:27). She perhaps married Uriel of Gibeah and became the mother of Maacah. <em>See<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Person) #4.<\/li>","summary_ro":"TAMAR (Person) 1. Wife of Er, the firstborn son of Judah by a Canaanitess. Later, as a widow, Tamar bore two sons to Judah named Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:6-24; 1 Chr 2:4). Tamar preserved the line of Judah through Perez (Ru 4:12), and her name is recorded in the genealogy of Christ (Mt 1:3). See also Genealogy of Jesus Christ. 2. Sister of Absalom and the daughter of David by his wife Maacah, the Geshurite. Through deceit, Tamar was seduced by Amnon, her half brother. In vengeance, Absalom, her...","summary_en":"TAMAR (Person) 1. Wife of Er, the firstborn son of Judah by a Canaanitess. Later, as a widow, Tamar bore two sons to Judah named Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:6-24; 1 Chr 2:4). Tamar preserved the line of Judah through Perez (Ru 4:12), and her name is recorded in the genealogy of Christ (Mt 1:3). See also Genealogy of Jesus Christ. 2. Sister of Absalom and the daughter of David by his wife Maacah, the Geshurite. Through deceit, Tamar was seduced by Amnon, her half brother. In vengeance, Absalom, her...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":11028,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Er","title_en":"Er","content_ro":"<h3>ER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ER 1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above. 3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","summary_en":"ER 1. Eldest son of Judah and Bathshua, a Canaanite woman (Gn 38:3). The Lord killed him before he and his wife, Tamar, could have any children (Gn 38:7; 46:12; 1 Chr 2:3). 2. Grandson of Judah and father of Lecah (1 Chr 4:21); a nephew of #1 above. 3. Joshua’s son and an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Lk 3:28). See Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43423,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","summary_en":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43424,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","summary_en":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71049,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","summary_en":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71050,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","summary_en":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","summary_en":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98676,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","summary_en":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7-10<\/strong> In this story, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s <em>evil<\/em> sons.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","summary_en":"38:7-10 In this story, the Lord is mentioned as the sovereign judge who took the lives of Judah’s evil sons.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:7<\/strong> That <em>Er was a wicked man<\/em> is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","summary_en":"38:7 That Er was a wicked man is not surprising, since his mother was a Canaanite and his father a wayward Israelite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":3842,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barrenness","title_en":"Barrenness","content_ro":"<h3>BARRENNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mother (16:1-2; 30:3). If a husband died without children, it was the responsibility of his brother to have children by his wife for him (38:8).<\/p>\n<p>Barrenness could be a curse (Hos 9:11, 14) or a divine punishment (Gn 20:17-18). It could be removed after earnest prayers (Gn 25:21; 1 Sm 1:16, 20) or by God’s prophet (2 Kgs 4:16) or messenger (Gn 18:14). On one occasion, a wife who had stopped having children was able to trade some mandrakes in exchange for sleeping privileges with her husband and had three more children (Gn 30:14-21). God promised Israel no infertility if they obeyed his laws (Dt 7:14). Unique among ancient writings is the concept here that barrenness could be a result of male infertility. Finally, as bad as barrenness was, Jesus told the women of Jerusalem that barrenness and dry breasts would be better than what they were going to go through (Lk 23:29). He was teaching that physical problems are never ultimate; spiritual ones are.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARRENNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mother (16:1-2; 30:3). If a husband died without children, it was the responsibility of his brother to have children by his wife for him (38:8).<\/p>\n<p>Barrenness could be a curse (Hos 9:11, 14) or a divine punishment (Gn 20:17-18). It could be removed after earnest prayers (Gn 25:21; 1 Sm 1:16, 20) or by God’s prophet (2 Kgs 4:16) or messenger (Gn 18:14). On one occasion, a wife who had stopped having children was able to trade some mandrakes in exchange for sleeping privileges with her husband and had three more children (Gn 30:14-21). God promised Israel no infertility if they obeyed his laws (Dt 7:14). Unique among ancient writings is the concept here that barrenness could be a result of male infertility. Finally, as bad as barrenness was, Jesus told the women of Jerusalem that barrenness and dry breasts would be better than what they were going to go through (Lk 23:29). He was teaching that physical problems are never ultimate; spiritual ones are.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARRENNESS Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mot...","summary_en":"BARRENNESS Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mot...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17448,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inheritance","title_en":"Inheritance","content_ro":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","summary_en":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28462,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Onan","title_en":"Onan","content_ro":"<h3>ONAN<\/h3>\n<p>Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ONAN<\/h3>\n<p>Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ONAN Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).","summary_en":"ONAN Second son of Judah and a Canaanitess named Shua (Gn 38:4-10; 46:12; Nm 26:19; 1 Chr 2:3). Judah forced him to enter into a levirate marriage with Tamar, the wife of his deceased brother, Er. Er and Tamar had no children. Onan refused to have children by Tamar, knowing that they would be heirs to his brother’s estate. As a result of Onan’s refusal to raise up descendants for his brother, the Lord punished him with death (Gn 38:8-10).","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43425,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:8","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","summary_en":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71051,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:8","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","summary_en":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98677,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:8","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","summary_en":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:8","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:8<\/strong> <em>as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother:<\/em> The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">levir<\/span>, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, but he would be disgraced in the family for refusing to perpetuate his brother’s name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","summary_en":"38:8 as our law requires. . . . You must produce an heir for your brother: The custom that informs this episode is the law for levirate marriage (Latin levir, “husband’s brother”). By this custom, which was later incorporated into God’s law for Israel (Deut 25:5-10), if a man died childless, his brother or nearest relative would marry his widow to produce a child who would carry on the family name of the deceased and inherit his property. Apparently, the near kinsman had a right to refuse, bu...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":43426,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","summary_en":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","summary_en":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98678,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","summary_en":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:9-10<\/strong> <em>Onan<\/em> married Tamar, but <em>was not willing<\/em> to provide an <em>heir<\/em> for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","summary_en":"38:9-10 Onan married Tamar, but was not willing to provide an heir for his brother. He would have sex with Tamar but not fulfill his responsibility to his dead brother (38:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":11954,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43427,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","summary_en":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71053,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","summary_en":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98679,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","summary_en":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:11<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","summary_en":"38:11 Judah is now presented as the model for his sons’ behavior—he, too, was unfaithful to his levirate responsibility to Tamar as next kinsman (see study note on 38:8). Judah and his sons were far too Canaanite in their ways (see study note on 38:27-30; contrast Boaz, Ruth 3–4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":16434,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hirah","title_en":"Hirah","content_ro":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","summary_en":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37317,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Timnah (Place)","title_en":"Timnah (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>TIMNAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelites and the Philistines. Apparently, Israel did achieve control of Timnah during the conquest (cf. Jos 19:43), but it was under Philistine control by the time of Samson (Jgs 14:1). Ahaz recaptured Timnah (c. 730 <span>BC<\/span>) from the Philistines (2 Chr 28:18).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities of the southern hill country that was part of the inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:57). It is possible that this is the site of Judah’s encounter with Tamar (Gn 38:12-14; and perhaps the same as #1 above).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TIMNAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelites and the Philistines. Apparently, Israel did achieve control of Timnah during the conquest (cf. Jos 19:43), but it was under Philistine control by the time of Samson (Jgs 14:1). Ahaz recaptured Timnah (c. 730 <span>BC<\/span>) from the Philistines (2 Chr 28:18).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities of the southern hill country that was part of the inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:57). It is possible that this is the site of Judah’s encounter with Tamar (Gn 38:12-14; and perhaps the same as #1 above).<\/li>","summary_ro":"TIMNAH (Place) 1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelite...","summary_en":"TIMNAH (Place) 1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelite...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37323,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Timnath*","title_en":"Timnath*","content_ro":"<h3>TIMNATH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Timnah, a town in northern Judah, in Genesis 38:12-14 and Judges 14:1-5. <em>See<\/em> Timnah (Place) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIMNATH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Timnah, a town in northern Judah, in Genesis 38:12-14 and Judges 14:1-5. <em>See<\/em> Timnah (Place) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIMNATH* KJV spelling of Timnah, a town in northern Judah, in Genesis 38:12-14 and Judges 14:1-5. See Timnah (Place) #1.","summary_en":"TIMNATH* KJV spelling of Timnah, a town in northern Judah, in Genesis 38:12-14 and Judges 14:1-5. See Timnah (Place) #1.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43428,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","summary_en":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","summary_en":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98680,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","summary_en":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:12-13<\/strong> Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • <em>Judah’s wife died:<\/em> This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","summary_en":"38:12-13 Without a marriage, the family’s future was in jeopardy. • Judah’s wife died: This made Judah available to fulfill the responsibility of providing an heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":11938,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31782,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prostitution Prostitute","title_en":"Prostitution Prostitute","content_ro":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","summary_en":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43429,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","summary_en":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","summary_en":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98681,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","summary_en":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:14-19<\/strong> <em>Tamar<\/em> realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","summary_en":"38:14-19 Tamar realized that she would have to take matters into her own hands if the family were to have a future. Tamar acted in keeping with the levirate custom (see study note on 38:8) out of loyalty to her deceased husband. She had a legal right to an heir by Judah’s son or by Judah, so she lured her father-in-law into having sex with her. Jacob’s family was deceived again, this time by a Canaanite daughter-in-law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":672,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adultery","title_en":"Adultery","content_ro":"<h3>ADULTERY<\/h3>\n<p>A breach of the unity of marriage. It describes any act of sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband, and all sexual intercourse involving a married man and a woman other than his wife.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times, polygamous unions were not considered adulterous (cf. Dt 21:15). Nor was a husband branded as an adulterer if he had intercourse with a slave woman (Gn 16:1-4; 30:1-5) or a prostitute (Gn 38:15-18)—though the latter was, of course, condemned as immoral (1 Cor 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>Any imbalance between the sexes was dispelled by Jesus in his teaching on divorce and remarriage. While he did not rule out the possibility of divorce in cases of sexual unfaithfulness (Mt 5:32; 19:9), he warned that in all other circumstances remarriage involves both (ex-)husband and (ex-)wife in adultery. Paul added that the charge of adultery only applies if the remarried person’s original partner is still alive (Rom 7:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus also sharpened the OT’s definition of adultery by applying it to a man’s thought life. Any man who fantasizes in lust (as distinct from just being tempted) has committed adultery in mind and intention, even though there is no physical contact (Mt 5:27-28; cf. Jb 31:1, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s condemnation of adultery is written into the heart of the OT law, prophecy, and wisdom literature. The Ten Commandments ban it unequivocally (Ex 20:14; Dt 5:18). The prophets list it among offenses that attract God’s anger and judgment (Jer 23:11-14; Ez 22:11; Mal 3:5). And the book of Proverbs scorns it as a senseless act by which a man destroys himself (Prv 6:23-35; cf. 7:6-27).<\/p>\n<p>The NT echoes that clear condemnation. Where there is no repentance, adultery excludes those who practice it from God’s kingdom (1 Cor 6:9). It is the very opposite of love of one’s neighbor (Rom 13:9-10), and it stands under the judgment of God himself (Heb 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the penalty for adultery is death—for both the man and the woman (Lv 20:10; Dt 22:22). The same applies if the woman is single but engaged to another man, assuming she has not been raped (in which case only the man is to be executed—Dt 22:23-27). The refrain “You will cleanse the land from evil” (22:24) shows that adultery was considered a serious threat to society’s health, not simply an attack on the family lives of the two people involved.<\/p>\n<p>With such serious consequences, it was important to establish guilt beyond doubt. In cases of serious suspicion but insufficient evidence, the wife concerned was put through an elaborate ritual test that included taking an oath and drinking bitter water. The result was not a matter of chance because she stood in the Lord’s presence (Nm 5:11-31).<\/p>\n<p>In both the OT and NT, the language of adultery is used figuratively to describe human unfaithfulness to God. The OT prophets likened God’s covenant relationship with his people to marriage (Is 54:5-8; cf. Rv 21:2), so in their eyes the breaking of that relationship, especially by idolatry, was equivalent to spiritual adultery (Jer 5:7-8; 13:22-27; Ez 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used the same imagery to characterize those who either rejected his claims or showed their lack of faith in him by demanding unnecessary extra signs of his deity (Mt 12:39; 16:4; Mk 8:38). And in another vivid NT passage, James describes God as a loving, jealous husband coming to deal with his adulterous people who have become good friends with the world and its false standards (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>This is the special theme of the prophet Hosea. God used the prophet’s own experience of a marriage broken by adultery to teach the seriousness of his people’s unfaithfulness to him (Hos 2:2-6) and his keen longing for a full reconciliation (3:1-5). Spiritual infidelity, like physical adultery, brings God’s judgment. But in both cases his overwhelming desire is for a mended relationship following sincere repentance (Jer 3:1-14; Ez 16:1-63).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Divorce; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Fornication.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADULTERY<\/h3>\n<p>A breach of the unity of marriage. It describes any act of sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband, and all sexual intercourse involving a married man and a woman other than his wife.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times, polygamous unions were not considered adulterous (cf. Dt 21:15). Nor was a husband branded as an adulterer if he had intercourse with a slave woman (Gn 16:1-4; 30:1-5) or a prostitute (Gn 38:15-18)—though the latter was, of course, condemned as immoral (1 Cor 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>Any imbalance between the sexes was dispelled by Jesus in his teaching on divorce and remarriage. While he did not rule out the possibility of divorce in cases of sexual unfaithfulness (Mt 5:32; 19:9), he warned that in all other circumstances remarriage involves both (ex-)husband and (ex-)wife in adultery. Paul added that the charge of adultery only applies if the remarried person’s original partner is still alive (Rom 7:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus also sharpened the OT’s definition of adultery by applying it to a man’s thought life. Any man who fantasizes in lust (as distinct from just being tempted) has committed adultery in mind and intention, even though there is no physical contact (Mt 5:27-28; cf. Jb 31:1, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s condemnation of adultery is written into the heart of the OT law, prophecy, and wisdom literature. The Ten Commandments ban it unequivocally (Ex 20:14; Dt 5:18). The prophets list it among offenses that attract God’s anger and judgment (Jer 23:11-14; Ez 22:11; Mal 3:5). And the book of Proverbs scorns it as a senseless act by which a man destroys himself (Prv 6:23-35; cf. 7:6-27).<\/p>\n<p>The NT echoes that clear condemnation. Where there is no repentance, adultery excludes those who practice it from God’s kingdom (1 Cor 6:9). It is the very opposite of love of one’s neighbor (Rom 13:9-10), and it stands under the judgment of God himself (Heb 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the penalty for adultery is death—for both the man and the woman (Lv 20:10; Dt 22:22). The same applies if the woman is single but engaged to another man, assuming she has not been raped (in which case only the man is to be executed—Dt 22:23-27). The refrain “You will cleanse the land from evil” (22:24) shows that adultery was considered a serious threat to society’s health, not simply an attack on the family lives of the two people involved.<\/p>\n<p>With such serious consequences, it was important to establish guilt beyond doubt. In cases of serious suspicion but insufficient evidence, the wife concerned was put through an elaborate ritual test that included taking an oath and drinking bitter water. The result was not a matter of chance because she stood in the Lord’s presence (Nm 5:11-31).<\/p>\n<p>In both the OT and NT, the language of adultery is used figuratively to describe human unfaithfulness to God. The OT prophets likened God’s covenant relationship with his people to marriage (Is 54:5-8; cf. Rv 21:2), so in their eyes the breaking of that relationship, especially by idolatry, was equivalent to spiritual adultery (Jer 5:7-8; 13:22-27; Ez 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used the same imagery to characterize those who either rejected his claims or showed their lack of faith in him by demanding unnecessary extra signs of his deity (Mt 12:39; 16:4; Mk 8:38). And in another vivid NT passage, James describes God as a loving, jealous husband coming to deal with his adulterous people who have become good friends with the world and its false standards (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>This is the special theme of the prophet Hosea. God used the prophet’s own experience of a marriage broken by adultery to teach the seriousness of his people’s unfaithfulness to him (Hos 2:2-6) and his keen longing for a full reconciliation (3:1-5). Spiritual infidelity, like physical adultery, brings God’s judgment. But in both cases his overwhelming desire is for a mended relationship following sincere repentance (Jer 3:1-14; Ez 16:1-63).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Divorce; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Fornication.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADULTERY A breach of the unity of marriage. It describes any act of sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband, and all sexual intercourse involving a married man and a woman other than his wife. In OT times, polygamous unions were not considered adulterous (cf. Dt 21:15). Nor was a husband branded as an adulterer if he had intercourse with a slave woman (Gn 16:1-4; 30:1-5) or a prostitute (Gn 38:15-18)—though the latter was, of course, condemned as immoral (1...","summary_en":"ADULTERY A breach of the unity of marriage. It describes any act of sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband, and all sexual intercourse involving a married man and a woman other than his wife. In OT times, polygamous unions were not considered adulterous (cf. Dt 21:15). Nor was a husband branded as an adulterer if he had intercourse with a slave woman (Gn 16:1-4; 30:1-5) or a prostitute (Gn 38:15-18)—though the latter was, of course, condemned as immoral (1...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":43430,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","summary_en":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","summary_en":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98682,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","summary_en":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:17<\/strong> It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","summary_en":"38:17 It would be normal for Tamar to ask for a pledge if the man did not have the money to pay. A woman in such a position would not trust anyone to send the money.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":34221,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Seal","title_en":"Seal","content_ro":"<h3>SEAL<\/h3>\n<p>Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were little more than tiny clay spools scratched with twigs to produce simple designs or figures. Glyptic art (the technical name for engraving or carving of seals on gems) flourished in the ancient Near East from the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> to the end of the Persian period in the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofSeals\">Types of Seals<\/p>\n<h5>Stamp Seals<\/h5>\n<p>Seals were produced in many shapes and sizes, the earliest being the stamp seal, a flat engraved gem or bead that produced a copy of itself when pressed against soft clay. It was superseded about 3000 <span>BC<\/span> in Mesopotamia by the cylinder seal and began to be used again only at the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>; by Hellenistic times it had replaced the cylinder seal altogether.<\/p>\n<h5>Cylinder Seals<\/h5>\n<p>The cylinder seal first appeared in Mesopotamia before 3000 <span>BC<\/span> and became the most widely used kind of seal until the middle of the first millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Its use in Egypt is evidence of early Mesopotamian cultural influence upon Egypt; however, it was soon replaced there by the scarab (beetle-shaped) seal, which was better adapted for sealing papyrus documents. Symbols or designs were carved on the outside of the cylinder, which left their imprint when the seal was rolled over the wet clay. Some of the earliest symbols used were geometric designs or representations of some magical symbol. Later seals depicted everything from mythology (deities seated conversing with each other, receiving worshipers in audience, riding in a boat or chariot, or fighting an enemy) to scenes from everyday life (hunting, marrying, banqueting, feeding animals, fighting wild beasts, offering sacrifices to the deity, warring, leading prisoners away) and representations of animals, flowers, and birds. Writing (e.g., the owner’s name or a declaration of loyalty to a god or king) began to appear on seals in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the great number and variety of seals that have been found, they are invaluable for what they reveal about ancient peoples—how they dressed, their hairstyles, furniture, utensils, and religious beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Seals were so widely used and have been unearthed in such quantity in the ancient Near East that they can be dated within a century or two of their origin, though sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact period or country of origin. Herodotus observed that every Babylonian gentleman “carries a seal and a walking stick” (Book I, 195). The seal was suspended by a cord about the neck or the wrist or attached to some part of the owner’s clothing (cf. Gn 38:18; 41:42; Sg 8:6; Jer 22:24). Graves have been found with cylinders tied to the wrists of the skeletons.<\/p>\n<p>Another type of seal was the jar handle seal. Cloth was placed over the neck of a bottle, soft clay was smeared on top of the binding cord, and then the seal was pressed into the wet clay. The unbroken seal showed that the merchandise had not been opened before delivery. In Judea the seal was impressed on jar handles as evidence of ownership. Some jar handle stamps were probably trademarks of pottery factories; some bear private names (perhaps the owner of the factory). The so-called royal jar handle stamps contain either a four-winged or two-winged symbol and a short inscription consisting of two lines. The line above reads “belonging to the king,” and the lower line contains the name of a city, probably where the jar was made.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/p>\n<h5>Functional Uses<\/h5>\n<p>Since their first creation as amulets, seals continued to serve as signals of protection. An unbroken seal proved that the contents had not been tampered with, whether on a document, a granary door, or a wine jar. The lions’ den into which Daniel was cast was sealed with the king’s signet and those of his nobles (Dn 6:17). Jesus’ tomb was secured by sealing the stone (Mt 27:66). The seal also served as a mark of ownership or as a trademark (e.g., placed on pottery before firing). It was also used to validate documents (letters, bills of sale, government documents, etc.). Jezebel wrote letters in her husband’s name and sealed them with his seal, thus bringing about the death of Naboth (1 Kgs 21:8-13). Jeremiah sealed a deed of purchase when he bought a kinsman’s land (Jer 32:10-14). An edict with the Persian king’s seal could not be revoked (Est 8:8).<\/p>\n<h5>Symbolic Use<\/h5>\n<p>Symbolic use of the seal is found both in nonbiblical and biblical literature. A Babylonian prayer says, “Like a seal may my sins be torn away.” The OT says, “Seal the teaching among my disciples” (Is 8:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). Zerubbabel was told he would become God’s signet ring (Hg 2:23). The earth took shape like clay pressed by a signet ring (Jb 38:14).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used symbolically in the NT to designate God’s personal ownership. For example, the Scriptures say that God’s seal is on Jesus, his Son (Jn 3:33; 6:27). This means that Jesus bears God’s personal name; Jesus is God’s personal expression. The Scriptures also say that the Holy Spirit seals the believers (2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This means that the Spirit is God’s mark of ownership on the believers, and it means that the Spirit protects and preserves the believers throughout their lives.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Inscriptions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SEAL<\/h3>\n<p>Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were little more than tiny clay spools scratched with twigs to produce simple designs or figures. Glyptic art (the technical name for engraving or carving of seals on gems) flourished in the ancient Near East from the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> to the end of the Persian period in the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofSeals\">Types of Seals<\/p>\n<h5>Stamp Seals<\/h5>\n<p>Seals were produced in many shapes and sizes, the earliest being the stamp seal, a flat engraved gem or bead that produced a copy of itself when pressed against soft clay. It was superseded about 3000 <span>BC<\/span> in Mesopotamia by the cylinder seal and began to be used again only at the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>; by Hellenistic times it had replaced the cylinder seal altogether.<\/p>\n<h5>Cylinder Seals<\/h5>\n<p>The cylinder seal first appeared in Mesopotamia before 3000 <span>BC<\/span> and became the most widely used kind of seal until the middle of the first millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Its use in Egypt is evidence of early Mesopotamian cultural influence upon Egypt; however, it was soon replaced there by the scarab (beetle-shaped) seal, which was better adapted for sealing papyrus documents. Symbols or designs were carved on the outside of the cylinder, which left their imprint when the seal was rolled over the wet clay. Some of the earliest symbols used were geometric designs or representations of some magical symbol. Later seals depicted everything from mythology (deities seated conversing with each other, receiving worshipers in audience, riding in a boat or chariot, or fighting an enemy) to scenes from everyday life (hunting, marrying, banqueting, feeding animals, fighting wild beasts, offering sacrifices to the deity, warring, leading prisoners away) and representations of animals, flowers, and birds. Writing (e.g., the owner’s name or a declaration of loyalty to a god or king) began to appear on seals in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the great number and variety of seals that have been found, they are invaluable for what they reveal about ancient peoples—how they dressed, their hairstyles, furniture, utensils, and religious beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Seals were so widely used and have been unearthed in such quantity in the ancient Near East that they can be dated within a century or two of their origin, though sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact period or country of origin. Herodotus observed that every Babylonian gentleman “carries a seal and a walking stick” (Book I, 195). The seal was suspended by a cord about the neck or the wrist or attached to some part of the owner’s clothing (cf. Gn 38:18; 41:42; Sg 8:6; Jer 22:24). Graves have been found with cylinders tied to the wrists of the skeletons.<\/p>\n<p>Another type of seal was the jar handle seal. Cloth was placed over the neck of a bottle, soft clay was smeared on top of the binding cord, and then the seal was pressed into the wet clay. The unbroken seal showed that the merchandise had not been opened before delivery. In Judea the seal was impressed on jar handles as evidence of ownership. Some jar handle stamps were probably trademarks of pottery factories; some bear private names (perhaps the owner of the factory). The so-called royal jar handle stamps contain either a four-winged or two-winged symbol and a short inscription consisting of two lines. The line above reads “belonging to the king,” and the lower line contains the name of a city, probably where the jar was made.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/p>\n<h5>Functional Uses<\/h5>\n<p>Since their first creation as amulets, seals continued to serve as signals of protection. An unbroken seal proved that the contents had not been tampered with, whether on a document, a granary door, or a wine jar. The lions’ den into which Daniel was cast was sealed with the king’s signet and those of his nobles (Dn 6:17). Jesus’ tomb was secured by sealing the stone (Mt 27:66). The seal also served as a mark of ownership or as a trademark (e.g., placed on pottery before firing). It was also used to validate documents (letters, bills of sale, government documents, etc.). Jezebel wrote letters in her husband’s name and sealed them with his seal, thus bringing about the death of Naboth (1 Kgs 21:8-13). Jeremiah sealed a deed of purchase when he bought a kinsman’s land (Jer 32:10-14). An edict with the Persian king’s seal could not be revoked (Est 8:8).<\/p>\n<h5>Symbolic Use<\/h5>\n<p>Symbolic use of the seal is found both in nonbiblical and biblical literature. A Babylonian prayer says, “Like a seal may my sins be torn away.” The OT says, “Seal the teaching among my disciples” (Is 8:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). Zerubbabel was told he would become God’s signet ring (Hg 2:23). The earth took shape like clay pressed by a signet ring (Jb 38:14).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used symbolically in the NT to designate God’s personal ownership. For example, the Scriptures say that God’s seal is on Jesus, his Son (Jn 3:33; 6:27). This means that Jesus bears God’s personal name; Jesus is God’s personal expression. The Scriptures also say that the Holy Spirit seals the believers (2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This means that the Spirit is God’s mark of ownership on the believers, and it means that the Spirit protects and preserves the believers throughout their lives.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Inscriptions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SEAL Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay. Origin The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were lit...","summary_en":"SEAL Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay. Origin The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were lit...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43431,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","summary_en":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71057,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","summary_en":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98683,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","summary_en":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126309,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:18<\/strong> <em>identification seal:<\/em> A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a <em>cord<\/em>; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","summary_en":"38:18 identification seal: A stone or metal cylinder was engraved with distinctive designs and was usually worn around the neck on a cord; when rolled onto clay or wax, it left a distinct impression.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":16435,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hirah","title_en":"Hirah","content_ro":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","summary_en":"HIRAH Adullamite and friend of Judah to whose house Judah went after he and his brothers sold Joseph (Gn 38:1). He accompanied Judah to the sheepshearing after Judah’s wife died (v 12), and he served as the messenger to carry a kid from Judah to Tamar (v 20).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43432,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","summary_en":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","summary_en":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98684,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","summary_en":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126310,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:20-23<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zonah<\/span>, 38:15), whereas <em>Hirah<\/em> was mistakenly looking for a <em>shrine prostitute<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qedeshah<\/span>), of which there were none.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","summary_en":"38:20-23 Judah had gone in to Tamar as a regular prostitute (Hebrew zonah, 38:15), whereas Hirah was mistakenly looking for a shrine prostitute (Hebrew qedeshah), of which there were none.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":31762,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prostitution Prostitute","title_en":"Prostitution Prostitute","content_ro":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","summary_en":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":8129,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","title_en":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","content_ro":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","summary_en":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43433,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","summary_en":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71059,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","summary_en":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98685,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","summary_en":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126311,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:24-26<\/strong> <em>Judah<\/em> played the hypocrite when he condemned <em>Tamar<\/em> to death for adultery. When she produced the <em>seal and cord and walking stick<\/em> that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","summary_en":"38:24-26 Judah played the hypocrite when he condemned Tamar to death for adultery. When she produced the seal and cord and walking stick that identified him as the father, he withdrew the condemnation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":21436,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Justification*, Justified","title_en":"Justification*, Justified","content_ro":"<h3>JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED<\/h3>\n<p>The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself.<\/p>\n<p>Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology. To Luther it represented a rediscovery of the writings of Paul and a fundamental counterthrust to medieval Catholicism with its theology of works and indulgences. The doctrine of justification by faith alone affirms the thoroughgoing sinfulness of all persons, their total inability to deal effectively with their own sin, and the gracious provision through the death of Jesus Christ of a complete atonement for sin, to which persons respond in simple trust without any special claims or merit of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “justification” and the verb “to justify” are not used often in Scripture. In the <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, the verb is found only in the OT, and there fewer than 25 times. In the NT both terms are used only 40 times. The more frequent and more important terms that translate the same Hebrew and Greek words are “righteousness” and “to declare (or make) righteous.” Any understanding of justification, therefore, directly involves a biblical understanding of righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>In common Greek, “justification” and “justify” are frequently forensic terms; that is, they relate to the law court and the act of acquitting or vindicating someone. It has to do with the innocence or virtue of a person. But more broadly it has to do with the norm of any relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the OT righteousness has to do with relationship and the obligations of that relationship. At times one is referred to as righteous because he or she stands in right relationship to another. At other times one is righteous because he or she fulfills certain obligations in a relationship (Gn 38:26). But more important, these terms are used with reference to God, who is viewed as just. He governs with justice (18:25), and his judgments are true and righteous (Ps 19:9). Both the innocent and the guilty know well the justice of God; the former know they will be vindicated and the latter know his law prevails.<\/p>\n<p>Justification and righteousness have technical significance because of their close association with the saving activity of God on behalf of his covenant people. The righteousness of God is bound up not so much with justice as with his intervention on behalf of his people under the covenant. The righteousness of God or the act of justification is, therefore, to be viewed not primarily in terms of law but in terms of covenant. The most important expression of this is the example of Abraham, who was reckoned righteous, that is, brought into personal relationship by virtue of his response of faith to the covenant offered by God (Gn 15:6). Abraham could not justify himself, but on the basis of the covenant, God established him as righteous. All persons share the helplessness of Abraham. In the sight of God no one shall stand justified (Ps 143:2). The hope of humanity is that God will remember his covenant. Righteousness is hence a product of the mercy or grace of God, who deals with his people according to his lovingkindness (Is 63:7). Justification is thus derived from the nature of God; it is primarily a religious term, and only secondly ethical.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Almost all discussion of justification in the NT is found in the letters of Paul, primarily in those to the Romans and Galatians. In these two letters it is one of the fundamental terms by which Paul seeks to set forth the consequences of the work of Christ for sinful humanity. Justification by faith is set primarily against the background of Jewish legalism and its attempts to make the law the basis of salvation. Paul regards this as an alien message requiring the strongest condemnation (Gal 1:6-9). The word and work of Christ, embedded in the message that Paul proclaimed, was a reminder that righteousness or justification is the gift of God through the blood (<em>covenant<\/em> blood, Heb 13:20) of Jesus Christ. All this is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21). The law, in fact, is not capable of leading one to righteousness, nor was it given to bring about righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>Galatians 3:15-25 is especially instructive in understanding the function of the law, which came 430 years after the covenant by which Abraham was brought into a living, personal relationship with the holy God. Whatever purpose the law had, it was not given as a means of righteousness. “For if a law had been given which could make alive, then righteousness would indeed be by the law” (Gal 3:21, <span>rsv<\/span>). The atoning work of Christ for the justification of people is to be seen in terms of covenant rather than law. This is the essential argument of Paul in this section of Galatians, namely, that justification, from the time of Abraham, has been through faith in the God who keeps covenant and has never come by the law. “Righteousness” is therefore a relational term and is affirmed by one who by faith has been brought into right relationship with God. The law brings judgment; it confronts one with his incapacity to cope with sin (Acts 13:39; Rom 8:3). Justification, then, has its forensic (judicial) dimensions in that it copes with, and represents salvation to, the problem of sin and guilt. The believer is set free from condemnation (Rom 8:1). Yet the fundamental understanding of justification is to be gained in moving away from the law and judgment to the covenant and grace. The appeal to Abraham in both Romans and Galatians is to show that the covenant has always been the only hope of humanity. God keeps his covenant, even though his covenant people violate it daily.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s formulation of the gospel, God is both just and the one who justifies. Sin demands judgment and must be dealt with. God’s pattern of bringing people into personal relationship now stands manifest apart from the law in the ministry and death of Christ, whom God put forth as the atoning agent (Rom 3:21-26). Sin is dealt with directly in the death of the sinless one who became sin for us so that we might in him become the righteousness of God (2 Cor 5:21). In his substitutionary death he bears the guilt of all humanity so that by responding in trust mankind might know God in true relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p>For Paul, then, justification in view of human sinfulness is rooted in the nature of God who alone is able to take initiative in the healing and redeeming of humanity. Justification is by grace alone. Rooted in the nature of God, it is also made available through the work of Christ as God’s gift. Thus, we have the often repeated confession that Christ died “for us” (Rom 5:8; 1 Thes 5:10), or “for our sins” (1 Cor 15:3). The means of appropriation is by faith and faith alone (Rom 3:22; 5:1). This faith is a simple trust in the sufficiency of the work of Christ, a trust by which one freely and wholeheartedly identifies with Christ, loves and embraces his Word, and gives himself to the value system expressed in the kingdom of God. The basic self-consciousness of the justified person is that his right relationship with the living God has nothing to do with merit or achievement. It is from beginning to end a gift of infinite love. His own powerlessness is resolved in the power of the gospel in which God’s saving work is revealed (1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels justification appears in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector who went into the temple to pray. The former drew attention to his pious works and moral superiority. The latter, humbled by a deep sense of sin and unworthiness, could only cry for mercy. This man, according to Jesus, went down to his house justified (Lk 18:14). Though this is the only instance of the terminology of justification by faith, the entire ministry of Jesus was among people preoccupied with their own piety and the task of justifying themselves before God, people who set themselves over against sinners and undesirables, people who were so involved in their own works that they were offended by the language of grace and the full pardon of sinners (7:36-50). Jesus spoke to the same issue that later plagued Paul. Only the humble before God will be exalted (Mt 18:4; 23:12). Only the sinner hears the word of grace (Lk 5:32; 15:7, 10; 19:7). The unworthy find healing (Mt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p>Justification (or righteousness) by faith is always to be reaffirmed, for within each person there is the almost inevitable and natural desire to establish personal righteousness, to be able to stand before God on the basis of personal character and piety. But the revival and well-being of the church (note that both Luther and Wesley turned from works to faith upon their study of Romans) is rooted in the understanding that the just live by faith (Rom 1:17; Heb 10:38; 11:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Faith; Law, Biblical Concept of; Sanctification.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED<\/h3>\n<p>The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself.<\/p>\n<p>Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology. To Luther it represented a rediscovery of the writings of Paul and a fundamental counterthrust to medieval Catholicism with its theology of works and indulgences. The doctrine of justification by faith alone affirms the thoroughgoing sinfulness of all persons, their total inability to deal effectively with their own sin, and the gracious provision through the death of Jesus Christ of a complete atonement for sin, to which persons respond in simple trust without any special claims or merit of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “justification” and the verb “to justify” are not used often in Scripture. In the <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, the verb is found only in the OT, and there fewer than 25 times. In the NT both terms are used only 40 times. The more frequent and more important terms that translate the same Hebrew and Greek words are “righteousness” and “to declare (or make) righteous.” Any understanding of justification, therefore, directly involves a biblical understanding of righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>In common Greek, “justification” and “justify” are frequently forensic terms; that is, they relate to the law court and the act of acquitting or vindicating someone. It has to do with the innocence or virtue of a person. But more broadly it has to do with the norm of any relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the OT righteousness has to do with relationship and the obligations of that relationship. At times one is referred to as righteous because he or she stands in right relationship to another. At other times one is righteous because he or she fulfills certain obligations in a relationship (Gn 38:26). But more important, these terms are used with reference to God, who is viewed as just. He governs with justice (18:25), and his judgments are true and righteous (Ps 19:9). Both the innocent and the guilty know well the justice of God; the former know they will be vindicated and the latter know his law prevails.<\/p>\n<p>Justification and righteousness have technical significance because of their close association with the saving activity of God on behalf of his covenant people. The righteousness of God is bound up not so much with justice as with his intervention on behalf of his people under the covenant. The righteousness of God or the act of justification is, therefore, to be viewed not primarily in terms of law but in terms of covenant. The most important expression of this is the example of Abraham, who was reckoned righteous, that is, brought into personal relationship by virtue of his response of faith to the covenant offered by God (Gn 15:6). Abraham could not justify himself, but on the basis of the covenant, God established him as righteous. All persons share the helplessness of Abraham. In the sight of God no one shall stand justified (Ps 143:2). The hope of humanity is that God will remember his covenant. Righteousness is hence a product of the mercy or grace of God, who deals with his people according to his lovingkindness (Is 63:7). Justification is thus derived from the nature of God; it is primarily a religious term, and only secondly ethical.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Almost all discussion of justification in the NT is found in the letters of Paul, primarily in those to the Romans and Galatians. In these two letters it is one of the fundamental terms by which Paul seeks to set forth the consequences of the work of Christ for sinful humanity. Justification by faith is set primarily against the background of Jewish legalism and its attempts to make the law the basis of salvation. Paul regards this as an alien message requiring the strongest condemnation (Gal 1:6-9). The word and work of Christ, embedded in the message that Paul proclaimed, was a reminder that righteousness or justification is the gift of God through the blood (<em>covenant<\/em> blood, Heb 13:20) of Jesus Christ. All this is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21). The law, in fact, is not capable of leading one to righteousness, nor was it given to bring about righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>Galatians 3:15-25 is especially instructive in understanding the function of the law, which came 430 years after the covenant by which Abraham was brought into a living, personal relationship with the holy God. Whatever purpose the law had, it was not given as a means of righteousness. “For if a law had been given which could make alive, then righteousness would indeed be by the law” (Gal 3:21, <span>rsv<\/span>). The atoning work of Christ for the justification of people is to be seen in terms of covenant rather than law. This is the essential argument of Paul in this section of Galatians, namely, that justification, from the time of Abraham, has been through faith in the God who keeps covenant and has never come by the law. “Righteousness” is therefore a relational term and is affirmed by one who by faith has been brought into right relationship with God. The law brings judgment; it confronts one with his incapacity to cope with sin (Acts 13:39; Rom 8:3). Justification, then, has its forensic (judicial) dimensions in that it copes with, and represents salvation to, the problem of sin and guilt. The believer is set free from condemnation (Rom 8:1). Yet the fundamental understanding of justification is to be gained in moving away from the law and judgment to the covenant and grace. The appeal to Abraham in both Romans and Galatians is to show that the covenant has always been the only hope of humanity. God keeps his covenant, even though his covenant people violate it daily.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s formulation of the gospel, God is both just and the one who justifies. Sin demands judgment and must be dealt with. God’s pattern of bringing people into personal relationship now stands manifest apart from the law in the ministry and death of Christ, whom God put forth as the atoning agent (Rom 3:21-26). Sin is dealt with directly in the death of the sinless one who became sin for us so that we might in him become the righteousness of God (2 Cor 5:21). In his substitutionary death he bears the guilt of all humanity so that by responding in trust mankind might know God in true relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p>For Paul, then, justification in view of human sinfulness is rooted in the nature of God who alone is able to take initiative in the healing and redeeming of humanity. Justification is by grace alone. Rooted in the nature of God, it is also made available through the work of Christ as God’s gift. Thus, we have the often repeated confession that Christ died “for us” (Rom 5:8; 1 Thes 5:10), or “for our sins” (1 Cor 15:3). The means of appropriation is by faith and faith alone (Rom 3:22; 5:1). This faith is a simple trust in the sufficiency of the work of Christ, a trust by which one freely and wholeheartedly identifies with Christ, loves and embraces his Word, and gives himself to the value system expressed in the kingdom of God. The basic self-consciousness of the justified person is that his right relationship with the living God has nothing to do with merit or achievement. It is from beginning to end a gift of infinite love. His own powerlessness is resolved in the power of the gospel in which God’s saving work is revealed (1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels justification appears in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector who went into the temple to pray. The former drew attention to his pious works and moral superiority. The latter, humbled by a deep sense of sin and unworthiness, could only cry for mercy. This man, according to Jesus, went down to his house justified (Lk 18:14). Though this is the only instance of the terminology of justification by faith, the entire ministry of Jesus was among people preoccupied with their own piety and the task of justifying themselves before God, people who set themselves over against sinners and undesirables, people who were so involved in their own works that they were offended by the language of grace and the full pardon of sinners (7:36-50). Jesus spoke to the same issue that later plagued Paul. Only the humble before God will be exalted (Mt 18:4; 23:12). Only the sinner hears the word of grace (Lk 5:32; 15:7, 10; 19:7). The unworthy find healing (Mt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p>Justification (or righteousness) by faith is always to be reaffirmed, for within each person there is the almost inevitable and natural desire to establish personal righteousness, to be able to stand before God on the basis of personal character and piety. But the revival and well-being of the church (note that both Luther and Wesley turned from works to faith upon their study of Romans) is rooted in the understanding that the just live by faith (Rom 1:17; Heb 10:38; 11:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Faith; Law, Biblical Concept of; Sanctification.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself. Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology....","summary_en":"JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself. Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology....","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43434,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","summary_en":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","summary_en":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98686,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","summary_en":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126312,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:26<\/strong> <em>She is more righteous than I am:<\/em> Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","summary_en":"38:26 She is more righteous than I am: Judah acknowledged that he had shirked his responsibility to provide an heir. It was sinful for Judah to go to a prostitute, but Tamar had a legal right to be the mother of Judah’s child and had acted on that right. In the book of Ruth, the elders analogously blessed the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, praying that God would make Ruth like Tamar (Ruth 4:12; cp. Matt 1:3, 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":40768,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68394,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96020,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123646,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11966,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24966,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Medicine and Medical Practice","title_en":"Medicine and Medical Practice","content_ro":"<h3>MEDICINE AND MEDICAL PRACTICE<\/h3>\n<p>The field of knowledge dealing with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, as well as the actual substances used to diagnose, treat, or prevent disease.<\/p>\n<p>Medicine as a branch of knowledge received little attention from the Hebrew people of OT times, in contrast to the surrounding cultures found in Mesopotamia and Egypt, where medical knowledge had a prominent place. Extant in the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal are 800 tablets relating to medicine. From these writings it can be seen that medicine at that time was a mixture of religion, divination, and demonology. Their pharmacopeia was extensive and included agents such as dog dung and human urine. Surgical operations were performed by some physicians. An unusual method of diagnosis practiced in Babylon was to inspect the liver of a freshly killed animal and compare it with a clay model of a liver from a normal animal. Differences between the two were used to diagnose the condition of the patient. An interesting example of this, and divination, is found in Ezekiel 21:21.<\/p>\n<p>The art of medicine was more advanced in Egypt than in Mesopotamia, depending more upon logic and observation. The Edwin-Smith papyrus is the oldest surgical treatise known. It discusses a variety of fractures, dislocations, wounds, tumors, and ulcers. Adhesive plaster, surgical stitching, and cauterization were used in treatment. The heart was recognized as the center of the circulatory system, and the pulse was observed. The Ebers papyrus deals with problems of internal medicine and their treatment. Enemas were a popular form of therapy, and their <em>materia medica<\/em> contained an assortment of remedies ranging from castor oil to animal fat to hot sand. Other papyri deal with gynecological problems and contain formularies and many magical incantations. Mummification was a highly developed art; Joseph had his father Jacob embalmed (Gn 50:2).<\/p>\n<p>The outlook of the Hebrew people in OT times toward disease was entirely different from that of their heathen neighbors. They did not believe in the heathen superstitions or gods and, consequently, did not develop a medical knowledge similar to the Egyptians and Babylonians. Instead, the Hebrews regarded sickness as a judgment from God (Ex 15:26; Dt 28:22, 35, 60-61; Jn 9:2) and recovery also was attributed to God (Ex 15:26; Ps 103:3). In accordance with this philosophy, King Asa’s reliance on physicians instead of on God is referred to in a reproachful way in 2 Chronicles 16:12. Therefore, while medical treatment was available in Israel, its use and development was less advanced than in neighboring lands.<\/p>\n<p>The most significant contribution the Hebrews gave to medicine was in the hygienic measures outlined in the Law, particularly Leviticus 11–15. While these had primarily a religious significance, they undoubtedly improved the general level of health and physical well-being of the people. The Hebrew priest was not the counterpart of the physician-priest found in other cultures. Although the Hebrew priest was expected to determine what physical conditions rendered a person ceremonially unclean, there is no intimation in Scripture that he treated diseases.<\/p>\n<p>The only surgical operation mentioned in Scripture is circumcision. This was performed by the Hebrews for religious rather than medical purposes, and it was not done by a physician but by the head of the house or someone else (Ex 4:25). In Ezekiel 30:21 reference is made to treating a fracture of the arm by immobilizing and splinting it with a roller bandage.<\/p>\n<p>Obstetrical care was given by women who were experienced midwives (Gn 35:17). In Genesis 38:27-30 there is an account of the birth of twins complicated by a transverse presentation. This is a difficult problem for even the most skilled obstetrician, and the fact that the mother and both babies survived speaks highly for the skill of this midwife. In Exodus 1:15-21 the use of birth stools for delivery is mentioned. This was a device to hold the laboring woman in a position favorable for delivering the baby.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, Greek medicine had a dominant influence in the Mediterranean world. Although the practice of medicine was still in a primitive state, Hippocrates and other Greek physicians of his day laid the basis for modern medicine by rejecting magical explanations of diseases and through careful observation attempted to give a rational basis for medical treatment. From Mark 5:26 it is known that physicians were available in Israel. Indeed, the rabbis ordained that every town must have at least one physician, and some rabbis themselves practiced medicine.<\/p>\n<p>Specific medical remedies are occasionally mentioned in the Bible. Mandrakes were used as an aphrodisiac (Gn 30:14; Sg 7:13). When Job was afflicted with generalized boils, he removed the devitalized skin with a piece of pottery and sat in ashes (Jb 2:7-8). The ashes would have a drying effect on the draining sores, giving this treatment a rational basis for its use. Jeremiah refers in a rhetorical way to the balm in Gilead, indicating its medicinal use (Jer 8:22; 46:11). The exact nature or use of this balm is not known. When Hezekiah was mortally ill, he was instructed by Isaiah to put a lump of figs on the boil (2 Kgs 20:7). This probably should not be considered a treatment, however, any more than the dipping seven times in the Jordan by Naaman or the application of mud to the eyes of the blind by the Lord. The therapeutic effect of merriment on the mind found in Proverbs 17:22 is in accord with modern mental health beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Medicinal use of wine is recorded several times in Scripture. Its mood-changing ability is alluded to in Proverbs 31:6, and apparently the sour wine offered to the Lord on the cross was intended to ameliorate his suffering through its analgesic property (Jn 19:29). Paul suggests to Timothy that he use a little wine for his stomach and other infirmities (1 Tm 5:23). It is significant that Paul said “a little” because pharmacologists today agree that wine in moderate amounts aids digestion and helps blood circulation; however, excessive amounts are deleterious to the health in numerous ways. The good Samaritan used oil and wine to treat the wounds of the injured man (Lk 10:34). Because of its alcoholic content, the wine would have an antiseptic action, but at the same time it would tend to coagulate the surface of the raw wound and permit bacteria to thrive under the coagulum. The oil, by its emollient effect, would tend to nullify this latter undesirable side effect of wine and would also be soothing due to its coating action. A dressing was then applied, and the patient was taken to a resting place.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 3:18 the Laodicean church is admonished to use eye salve. Since Laodicea was famous for a powder used for weak and ailing eyes, this illustration is uniquely appropriate to use in warning this church concerning its lack of spiritual vision.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Disease; Physician; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEDICINE AND MEDICAL PRACTICE<\/h3>\n<p>The field of knowledge dealing with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, as well as the actual substances used to diagnose, treat, or prevent disease.<\/p>\n<p>Medicine as a branch of knowledge received little attention from the Hebrew people of OT times, in contrast to the surrounding cultures found in Mesopotamia and Egypt, where medical knowledge had a prominent place. Extant in the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal are 800 tablets relating to medicine. From these writings it can be seen that medicine at that time was a mixture of religion, divination, and demonology. Their pharmacopeia was extensive and included agents such as dog dung and human urine. Surgical operations were performed by some physicians. An unusual method of diagnosis practiced in Babylon was to inspect the liver of a freshly killed animal and compare it with a clay model of a liver from a normal animal. Differences between the two were used to diagnose the condition of the patient. An interesting example of this, and divination, is found in Ezekiel 21:21.<\/p>\n<p>The art of medicine was more advanced in Egypt than in Mesopotamia, depending more upon logic and observation. The Edwin-Smith papyrus is the oldest surgical treatise known. It discusses a variety of fractures, dislocations, wounds, tumors, and ulcers. Adhesive plaster, surgical stitching, and cauterization were used in treatment. The heart was recognized as the center of the circulatory system, and the pulse was observed. The Ebers papyrus deals with problems of internal medicine and their treatment. Enemas were a popular form of therapy, and their <em>materia medica<\/em> contained an assortment of remedies ranging from castor oil to animal fat to hot sand. Other papyri deal with gynecological problems and contain formularies and many magical incantations. Mummification was a highly developed art; Joseph had his father Jacob embalmed (Gn 50:2).<\/p>\n<p>The outlook of the Hebrew people in OT times toward disease was entirely different from that of their heathen neighbors. They did not believe in the heathen superstitions or gods and, consequently, did not develop a medical knowledge similar to the Egyptians and Babylonians. Instead, the Hebrews regarded sickness as a judgment from God (Ex 15:26; Dt 28:22, 35, 60-61; Jn 9:2) and recovery also was attributed to God (Ex 15:26; Ps 103:3). In accordance with this philosophy, King Asa’s reliance on physicians instead of on God is referred to in a reproachful way in 2 Chronicles 16:12. Therefore, while medical treatment was available in Israel, its use and development was less advanced than in neighboring lands.<\/p>\n<p>The most significant contribution the Hebrews gave to medicine was in the hygienic measures outlined in the Law, particularly Leviticus 11–15. While these had primarily a religious significance, they undoubtedly improved the general level of health and physical well-being of the people. The Hebrew priest was not the counterpart of the physician-priest found in other cultures. Although the Hebrew priest was expected to determine what physical conditions rendered a person ceremonially unclean, there is no intimation in Scripture that he treated diseases.<\/p>\n<p>The only surgical operation mentioned in Scripture is circumcision. This was performed by the Hebrews for religious rather than medical purposes, and it was not done by a physician but by the head of the house or someone else (Ex 4:25). In Ezekiel 30:21 reference is made to treating a fracture of the arm by immobilizing and splinting it with a roller bandage.<\/p>\n<p>Obstetrical care was given by women who were experienced midwives (Gn 35:17). In Genesis 38:27-30 there is an account of the birth of twins complicated by a transverse presentation. This is a difficult problem for even the most skilled obstetrician, and the fact that the mother and both babies survived speaks highly for the skill of this midwife. In Exodus 1:15-21 the use of birth stools for delivery is mentioned. This was a device to hold the laboring woman in a position favorable for delivering the baby.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, Greek medicine had a dominant influence in the Mediterranean world. Although the practice of medicine was still in a primitive state, Hippocrates and other Greek physicians of his day laid the basis for modern medicine by rejecting magical explanations of diseases and through careful observation attempted to give a rational basis for medical treatment. From Mark 5:26 it is known that physicians were available in Israel. Indeed, the rabbis ordained that every town must have at least one physician, and some rabbis themselves practiced medicine.<\/p>\n<p>Specific medical remedies are occasionally mentioned in the Bible. Mandrakes were used as an aphrodisiac (Gn 30:14; Sg 7:13). When Job was afflicted with generalized boils, he removed the devitalized skin with a piece of pottery and sat in ashes (Jb 2:7-8). The ashes would have a drying effect on the draining sores, giving this treatment a rational basis for its use. Jeremiah refers in a rhetorical way to the balm in Gilead, indicating its medicinal use (Jer 8:22; 46:11). The exact nature or use of this balm is not known. When Hezekiah was mortally ill, he was instructed by Isaiah to put a lump of figs on the boil (2 Kgs 20:7). This probably should not be considered a treatment, however, any more than the dipping seven times in the Jordan by Naaman or the application of mud to the eyes of the blind by the Lord. The therapeutic effect of merriment on the mind found in Proverbs 17:22 is in accord with modern mental health beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Medicinal use of wine is recorded several times in Scripture. Its mood-changing ability is alluded to in Proverbs 31:6, and apparently the sour wine offered to the Lord on the cross was intended to ameliorate his suffering through its analgesic property (Jn 19:29). Paul suggests to Timothy that he use a little wine for his stomach and other infirmities (1 Tm 5:23). It is significant that Paul said “a little” because pharmacologists today agree that wine in moderate amounts aids digestion and helps blood circulation; however, excessive amounts are deleterious to the health in numerous ways. The good Samaritan used oil and wine to treat the wounds of the injured man (Lk 10:34). Because of its alcoholic content, the wine would have an antiseptic action, but at the same time it would tend to coagulate the surface of the raw wound and permit bacteria to thrive under the coagulum. The oil, by its emollient effect, would tend to nullify this latter undesirable side effect of wine and would also be soothing due to its coating action. A dressing was then applied, and the patient was taken to a resting place.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 3:18 the Laodicean church is admonished to use eye salve. Since Laodicea was famous for a powder used for weak and ailing eyes, this illustration is uniquely appropriate to use in warning this church concerning its lack of spiritual vision.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Disease; Physician; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEDICINE AND MEDICAL PRACTICE The field of knowledge dealing with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, as well as the actual substances used to diagnose, treat, or prevent disease. Medicine as a branch of knowledge received little attention from the Hebrew people of OT times, in contrast to the surrounding cultures found in Mesopotamia and Egypt, where medical knowledge had a prominent place. Extant in the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal are 800 tablets relating to medi...","summary_en":"MEDICINE AND MEDICAL PRACTICE The field of knowledge dealing with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, as well as the actual substances used to diagnose, treat, or prevent disease. Medicine as a branch of knowledge received little attention from the Hebrew people of OT times, in contrast to the surrounding cultures found in Mesopotamia and Egypt, where medical knowledge had a prominent place. Extant in the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal are 800 tablets relating to medi...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43435,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","summary_en":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71061,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","summary_en":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98687,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","summary_en":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126313,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:27-30<\/strong> Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The <em>twins<\/em> replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr 4:21), nor through the elder twin Zerah (see Ruth 4:13-22; Matt 1:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","summary_en":"38:27-30 Judah’s line continued because of Tamar. The twins replaced Judah’s two slain sons (38:7, 10); their birth was similar to the birth of Jacob and Esau (25:21-26) in that the “red” one was born first, but the other son pushed past him in later life. Jacob’s gaining the right to rule over his older brother (27:29) seemed to be relived in Judah’s line. The line was carried on through Perez and not through the elder son Shelah, whom he had gone to such lengths to protect (38:11; see 1 Chr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":7127,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":20996,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29586,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perezite Perez","title_en":"Perezite Perez","content_ro":"<h3>PEREZ, PEREZITE<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Judah whose name is derived from a Hebrew word meaning “he who bursts forth”; his name refers to the manner in which he unexpectedly came first from Tamar’s womb before his twin brother, Zerah (Gn 38:29). He fathered two sons, Hezron and Hamul, and became the ancestral head of the Perezite family (Gn 46:12; Nm 26:20-21; 1 Chr 2:4-5; 4:1). The <span>kjv<\/span> and the Apocrypha translate the name variously as Pharez, Phares, and Pharzite.<\/p>\n<p>Through the descent of his son Hezron, he became the ancestor of David and Jesus Christ (Ru 4:18-22; Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33). The esteem this clan enjoyed in the tribe of Judah is evidenced by the blessing pronounced upon it by the men of Bethlehem (Ru 4:12). A descendant named Jashobeam commanded David’s captains for the first month of each year (1 Chr 27:2-3). Upon the return from captivity in Babylon, 468 Perezites were chosen to live in Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:4; Neh 11:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEREZ, PEREZITE<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Judah whose name is derived from a Hebrew word meaning “he who bursts forth”; his name refers to the manner in which he unexpectedly came first from Tamar’s womb before his twin brother, Zerah (Gn 38:29). He fathered two sons, Hezron and Hamul, and became the ancestral head of the Perezite family (Gn 46:12; Nm 26:20-21; 1 Chr 2:4-5; 4:1). The <span>kjv<\/span> and the Apocrypha translate the name variously as Pharez, Phares, and Pharzite.<\/p>\n<p>Through the descent of his son Hezron, he became the ancestor of David and Jesus Christ (Ru 4:18-22; Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33). The esteem this clan enjoyed in the tribe of Judah is evidenced by the blessing pronounced upon it by the men of Bethlehem (Ru 4:12). A descendant named Jashobeam commanded David’s captains for the first month of each year (1 Chr 27:2-3). Upon the return from captivity in Babylon, 468 Perezites were chosen to live in Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:4; Neh 11:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEREZ, PEREZITE Son of Judah whose name is derived from a Hebrew word meaning “he who bursts forth”; his name refers to the manner in which he unexpectedly came first from Tamar’s womb before his twin brother, Zerah (Gn 38:29). He fathered two sons, Hezron and Hamul, and became the ancestral head of the Perezite family (Gn 46:12; Nm 26:20-21; 1 Chr 2:4-5; 4:1). The kjv and the Apocrypha translate the name variously as Pharez, Phares, and Pharzite. Through the descent of his son Hezron, he bec...","summary_en":"PEREZ, PEREZITE Son of Judah whose name is derived from a Hebrew word meaning “he who bursts forth”; his name refers to the manner in which he unexpectedly came first from Tamar’s womb before his twin brother, Zerah (Gn 38:29). He fathered two sons, Hezron and Hamul, and became the ancestral head of the Perezite family (Gn 46:12; Nm 26:20-21; 1 Chr 2:4-5; 4:1). The kjv and the Apocrypha translate the name variously as Pharez, Phares, and Pharzite. Through the descent of his son Hezron, he bec...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","summary_en":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","summary_en":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98688,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","summary_en":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126314,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 38:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 38:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>38:29-30<\/strong> <em>Perez<\/em> pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","summary_en":"38:29-30 Perez pushed past his brother, just as Joseph would soon do in relation to his brothers (chs 39–47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":38910,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zara*, Zarah*","title_en":"Zara*, Zarah*","content_ro":"<h3>ZARA*, ZARAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate forms of Zerah, Judah’s son, in Genesis 38:30, 46:12, and Matthew 1:3. <em>See<\/em> Zerah #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZARA*, ZARAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate forms of Zerah, Judah’s son, in Genesis 38:30, 46:12, and Matthew 1:3. <em>See<\/em> Zerah #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZARA*, ZARAH* KJV alternate forms of Zerah, Judah’s son, in Genesis 38:30, 46:12, and Matthew 1:3. See Zerah #2.","summary_en":"ZARA*, ZARAH* KJV alternate forms of Zerah, Judah’s son, in Genesis 38:30, 46:12, and Matthew 1:3. See Zerah #2.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39229,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zerah","title_en":"Zerah","content_ro":"<h3>ZERAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influential clans of Judah (Nm 26:20; Jos 7:1, 18; 22:20; 1 Chr 2:4-6; 9:6). Because Ethan and Heman are listed as sons of Zerah in 1 Chronicles 2:6, the Ezrahites mentioned in 1 Kings 4:31 and the titles to Psalms 88 and 89 are also considered to be Zerahites. However, Ethan and Heman are listed as Levites in 1 Chronicles 15:17, thus making it more likely that the Ezrahites were a Levite clan.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the sons of Simeon from whom the Zerahite clan descended (Nm 26:13; 1 Chr 4:24); alternately called Zohar in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Iddo, from the Gershonite branch of Levi’s tribe (1 Chr 6:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the ancestors of Asaph from Levi’s tribe, listed as the son of Adaiah and the father of Ethni (1 Chr 6:41). Several believe him to be the same individual as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Commander of the Ethiopians (Cushites) who fought against Asa, king of Judah (2 Chr 14:9). It is difficult to identify this individual or the historical event with any certainty. The most common identification has been with Usarkon II of Egypt. The account of the battle agrees with the chronology of Usarkon’s reign in Egypt, as do the number and nationalities of the troops involved in the conflict.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZERAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influential clans of Judah (Nm 26:20; Jos 7:1, 18; 22:20; 1 Chr 2:4-6; 9:6). Because Ethan and Heman are listed as sons of Zerah in 1 Chronicles 2:6, the Ezrahites mentioned in 1 Kings 4:31 and the titles to Psalms 88 and 89 are also considered to be Zerahites. However, Ethan and Heman are listed as Levites in 1 Chronicles 15:17, thus making it more likely that the Ezrahites were a Levite clan.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the sons of Simeon from whom the Zerahite clan descended (Nm 26:13; 1 Chr 4:24); alternately called Zohar in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Iddo, from the Gershonite branch of Levi’s tribe (1 Chr 6:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the ancestors of Asaph from Levi’s tribe, listed as the son of Adaiah and the father of Ethni (1 Chr 6:41). Several believe him to be the same individual as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Commander of the Ethiopians (Cushites) who fought against Asa, king of Judah (2 Chr 14:9). It is difficult to identify this individual or the historical event with any certainty. The most common identification has been with Usarkon II of Egypt. The account of the battle agrees with the chronology of Usarkon’s reign in Egypt, as do the number and nationalities of the troops involved in the conflict.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZERAH 1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33). 2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influ...","summary_en":"ZERAH 1. One of the chiefs of the Edomites (Gn 36:17; 1 Chr 1:37), listed as the son of Reuel, Esau’s son by his wife Basemath, and likely the ancestor of Jobab, who later assumed the position of king of the Edomites (Gn 36:13, 33). 2. One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gn 38:30; 46:12; Mt 1:3). Although Zerah thrust out his hand first, he retracted it, allowing his brother, Perez, to be born first. The descendants of Zerah (the Zerahites) became one of the most influ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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