Iacov 5
1 Ascultaţi acum voi, bogaţilor! Plângeţi şi tânguiţi-vă, din pricina nenorocirilor, cari au să vină peste voi.
2 Bogăţiile voastre au putrezit, şi hainele voastre sânt roase de molii.
3 Aurul şi argintul vostru au ruginit; şi rugina lor va fi o dovadă împotriva voastră: ca focul are să vă mănânce carnea! V-aţi strâns comori în zilele din urmă!
4 Iată că plata lucrătorilor, cari v-au secerat câmpiile, şi pe care le-aţi oprit-o, prin înşelăciune, strigă! Şi strigătele secerătorilor au ajuns la urechile Domnului oştirilor.
5 Aţi trăit pe pământ în plăceri şi în desfătări. V-aţi săturat inimile chiar într-o zi de măcel.
6 Aţi osândit, aţi omorât pe cel neprihănit, care nu vi se împotrivea!
7 Fiţi dar îndelung răbdători, fraţilor, până la venirea Domnului. Iată că plugarul aşteaptă roada scumpă a pământului, şi o aşteaptă cu răbdare, până primeşte ploaie timpurie şi târzie.
8 Fiţi şi voi îndelung răbdători, întăriţi-vă inimile, căci venirea Domnului este aproape.
9 Nu vă plângeţi unii împotriva altora, fraţilor, ca să nu fiţi judecaţi: iată că Judecătorul este chiar la uşă.
10 Fraţii mei, luaţi ca pildă de suferinţă şi de răbdare pe proorocii, cari au vorbit în Numele Domnului.
11 Iată, noi numim fericiţi pe cei ce au răbdat. Aţi auzit vorbindu-se despre răbdarea lui Iov, şi aţi văzut ce sfârşit i-a dat Domnul, şi cum Domnul este plin de milă şi de îndurare.
12 Mai pe sus de toate, fraţii mei, să nu vă juraţi nici pe cer, nici pe pământ, nici cu vreun altfel de jurământ. Ci ,,da`` al vostru să fie ,,da``; şi ,,nu`` să fie ,,nu``, ca să nu cădeţi supt judecată.
13 Este vreunul printre voi în suferinţă? Să se roage! Este vreunul cu inimă bună? Să cânte cântări de laudă!
14 Este vreunul printre voi bolnav? Să cheme pe presbiterii (Sau: bătrâni.). Bisericii; şi să se roage pentru el, după ce-l vor unge cu untdelemn în Numele Domnului.
15 Rugăciunea făcută cu credinţă va mântui pe cel bolnav, şi Domnul îl va însănătoşa; şi dacă a făcut păcate, îi vor fi iertate.
16 Mărturisiţi-vă unii altora păcatele, şi rugaţi-vă unii pentru alţii, ca să fiţi vindecaţi. Mare putere are rugăciunea fierbinte a celui neprihănit.
17 Ilie era un om supus aceloraşi slăbiciuni ca şi noi; şi s-a rugat cu stăruinţă să nu ploaie, şi n-a plouat deloc în ţară trei ani şi şase luni.
18 Apoi s-a rugat din nou, şi cerul a dat ploaie, şi pământul şi-a dat rodul.
19 Fraţilor, dacă s-a rătăcit vreunul dintre voi dela adevăr, şi-l întoarce un altul,
20 să ştiţi că cine întoarce pe un păcătos dela rătăcirea căii lui, va mântui un suflet dela moarte, şi va acoperi o sumedenie de păcate
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":42660,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70286,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97912,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125538,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18436,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38101,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wages","title_en":"Wages","content_ro":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","summary_en":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38254,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wealth","title_en":"Wealth","content_ro":"<h3>WEALTH<\/h3>\n<p>Abundance, usually of money or material goods, whose value is ordinarily expressed in terms of some understood unit, such as a national currency. It is virtually synonymous with riches, and both may refer to family, friends, or even moral qualities.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT riches are a mark of favor with God (Ps 112:3), and he gives power to acquire wealth (Dt 8:18). Both the piety and the wealth of Job are well known (Jb 1:1-3). Solomon was perhaps the richest man who ever lived; God granted him “riches, possessions, and honor” because Solomon had asked for wisdom and discernment rather than material things (1 Kgs 3:10-13; 2 Chr 1:11-12). But the Bible makes it clear that a person’s life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions (Lk 12:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT wealthy men are often seen as godless—for example, the rich farmer (Lk 12:16-21) and the rich man who neglected the beggar Lazarus (16:19-31). The wealthy are condemned for oppression and greed (Jas 5:1-6). Luke 6:24 pronounces woe against the rich, and all three synoptic Gospels speak of the dangers of riches (Mt 13:22; Mk 4:19; Lk 8:14). But not all rich men were bad. Jesus was buried in the tomb of a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph (Mt 27:57). Nicodemus, who provided lavishly for the burial of Jesus (Jn 19:39), was “a ruler of the Jews” (3:1) and probably a man of wealth.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Mammon; Money; Poor, The; Riches; Wages.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WEALTH<\/h3>\n<p>Abundance, usually of money or material goods, whose value is ordinarily expressed in terms of some understood unit, such as a national currency. It is virtually synonymous with riches, and both may refer to family, friends, or even moral qualities.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT riches are a mark of favor with God (Ps 112:3), and he gives power to acquire wealth (Dt 8:18). Both the piety and the wealth of Job are well known (Jb 1:1-3). Solomon was perhaps the richest man who ever lived; God granted him “riches, possessions, and honor” because Solomon had asked for wisdom and discernment rather than material things (1 Kgs 3:10-13; 2 Chr 1:11-12). But the Bible makes it clear that a person’s life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions (Lk 12:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT wealthy men are often seen as godless—for example, the rich farmer (Lk 12:16-21) and the rich man who neglected the beggar Lazarus (16:19-31). The wealthy are condemned for oppression and greed (Jas 5:1-6). Luke 6:24 pronounces woe against the rich, and all three synoptic Gospels speak of the dangers of riches (Mt 13:22; Mk 4:19; Lk 8:14). But not all rich men were bad. Jesus was buried in the tomb of a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph (Mt 27:57). Nicodemus, who provided lavishly for the burial of Jesus (Jn 19:39), was “a ruler of the Jews” (3:1) and probably a man of wealth.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Mammon; Money; Poor, The; Riches; Wages.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WEALTH Abundance, usually of money or material goods, whose value is ordinarily expressed in terms of some understood unit, such as a national currency. It is virtually synonymous with riches, and both may refer to family, friends, or even moral qualities. In the OT riches are a mark of favor with God (Ps 112:3), and he gives power to acquire wealth (Dt 8:18). Both the piety and the wealth of Job are well known (Jb 1:1-3). Solomon was perhaps the richest man who ever lived; God granted him “r...","summary_en":"WEALTH Abundance, usually of money or material goods, whose value is ordinarily expressed in terms of some understood unit, such as a national currency. It is virtually synonymous with riches, and both may refer to family, friends, or even moral qualities. In the OT riches are a mark of favor with God (Ps 112:3), and he gives power to acquire wealth (Dt 8:18). Both the piety and the wealth of Job are well known (Jb 1:1-3). Solomon was perhaps the richest man who ever lived; God granted him “r...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59042,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","summary_en":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86668,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","summary_en":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114294,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","summary_en":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-6<\/strong> This section denounces the <em>rich people<\/em> for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face <em>terrible troubles<\/em> . . . <em>on the day of judgment<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","summary_en":"5:1-6 This section denounces the rich people for their greed and arrogant oppression of the poor (Lev 19:13). James warns them to repent while they can; if they do not, they will face terrible troubles . . . on the day of judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62387,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Material Reward","title_en":"Material Reward","content_ro":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","summary_ro":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","summary_en":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90013,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Material Reward","title_en":"Material Reward","content_ro":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","summary_ro":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","summary_en":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117639,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Material Reward","title_en":"Material Reward","content_ro":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","summary_ro":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","summary_en":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145265,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Material Reward","title_en":"Material Reward","content_ro":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Material Reward<\/h3>\n<p>It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s troubles stood as evidence against him (19:5). They claimed that his suffering was punishment for his sin (4:7-9) and believed that Job’s penalty was probably less than he deserved (11:6). However, God’s analysis of Job’s life proved this idea to be false (42:7-8). God testified to his special relationship with Job and restored Job’s good reputation as his servant.<\/p>\n<p>Material well-being is not necessarily in opposition to spiritual blessing. Once we equate blessings with material gain, however, “the worries of this life, the lure of wealth, and the desire for other things” tend to crowd out our attention to spiritual blessings (Mark 4:19; see also Luke 6:25). We can easily shift to greed, covetousness, and lust. And our self-esteem can come to be based on what we own (even if we still owe many payments on it). This worldview is not Christian but characterizes worldly people (1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In his suffering, Job moved from complaint to renewed humility as he acknowledged God’s righteous power (Job 40:4-5; 42:2-6). We, too, can regard hardships as occasions for spiritual growth (Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:2; 1 Kgs 10:23; Job 4:7-9; 11:6; 19:5; Pss 49:16-20; 73:1-28; Prov 14:20; 18:11; 28:11; Eccl 5:10-20; Jer 17:11; Zeph 1:18; Matt 27:57; Mark 4:19; 10:17-25; Luke 6:24-25; 16:10-31; 1 Tim 6:17; Jas 1:2-4, 9; 5:1; 1 Jn 2:16; 3 Jn 1:2<\/p>","summary_ro":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","summary_en":"Material Reward It was a common Old Testament belief that righteous people would always prosper materially. They interpreted contemporary wisdom (as in the book of Proverbs) as a universal rule. Some hold this view today. One problem with this theology is that it can induce false guilt and accusations when prosperity does not come (and spiritual complacency when it does come). Job’s suffering provides an example. His friends accepted this traditional theological view. They said that Job’s tro...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":2031,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18427,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59043,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","summary_en":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86669,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","summary_en":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114295,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","summary_en":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141921,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The <em>wealth<\/em> and <em>fine clothes<\/em> are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","summary_en":"5:2 The wealth and fine clothes are so excessive that they deteriorate from lack of use; their destruction is a sign of the anticipated judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67786,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95412,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123038,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150664,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":25853,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59044,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","summary_en":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86670,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","summary_en":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114296,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","summary_en":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141922,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> Material wealth, represented by <em>gold<\/em> and <em>silver<\/em><em>,<\/em> is worthless in the face of God’s <em>judgment<\/em>. In fact, it <em>will testify against<\/em> them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","summary_en":"5:3 Material wealth, represented by gold and silver, is worthless in the face of God’s judgment. In fact, it will testify against them because it was unjustly gotten (5:4) and wickedly used (5:5-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67771,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95397,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123023,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150649,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":16896,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Heaven* Host, Host","title_en":"of Heaven* Host, Host","content_ro":"<h3>HOST, HOST OF HEAVEN*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew expressions found frequently in the OT and literally meaning “army” and “army of the skies.” “Host” is basically a military term, occurring nearly 500 times in the OT, and can mean “army” (2 Kgs 18:17), “angels,” “heavenly bodies,” or “creation.”<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “host of heaven” has various applications in the Bible. Ancient writers sometimes referred symbolically to the sun, moon, and stars as an army (Dt 4:19; Jgs 5:20). In the astrological cults of antiquity, it was believed that celestial bodies were animated by spirits and thus constituted a living army that controlled heavenly destiny. The worship of the host of heaven was one of the earliest forms of idolatry, and was common among the Israelites in their times of regression from serving God (Jer 19:13; Acts 7:42). Although warned against such pagan beliefs (Dt 4:19; 17:3), the Israelites fell into the practice of worshiping heavenly bodies, particularly during the Assyrian and Babylonian periods (2 Kgs 17:16; 21:3-5; 2 Chr 33:3-5; Jer 8:2; Zep 1:5). The corrective to this pagan practice is belief in the Lord as the Creator of heaven and earth, the Almighty, the one who marshaled the heavenly bodies at his command and ordained them to perform a special function (Gn 1:14-19; 2:1; Neh 9:6; Pss 33:6; 103:21; 148:2; Is 40:26; 45:12).<\/p>\n<p>God is frequently called “the Lord God of hosts,” that is, of the celestial armies (Jer 5:14; 38:17; 44:7; Hos 12:5). The heavenly host includes angels or messengers who are associated with the Lord’s work in heaven and on earth. God presides over a heavenly council composed of angels or “sons of God” (Gn 1:26; 1 Kgs 22:19; Jb 1:6; Ps 82; Is 6) whose messengers are sent from the Lord’s council to accomplish his purpose (Gn 28:12-15; Lk 2:13).<\/p>\n<p>Though the hosts are sometimes understood as the stars or angels, the tribes of Israel are also called “the host of the Lord.” The “host of heaven” in Daniel 8:10-11 appears to be figurative language referring to Israel, “the holy people,” and God, the King of Israel, is called “the Prince of the host.”<\/p>\n<p>The Greek words translated “host” occur only twice in the NT (Lk 2:13; Acts 7:42). “Lord of hosts” is used by Paul and James (Rom 9:29; Jas 5:4) as a title for the Lord. The term expresses God’s sovereign might and majesty in history, but the precise identification of the “hosts” that stand at his command is uncertain.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosts, Lord of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOST, HOST OF HEAVEN*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew expressions found frequently in the OT and literally meaning “army” and “army of the skies.” “Host” is basically a military term, occurring nearly 500 times in the OT, and can mean “army” (2 Kgs 18:17), “angels,” “heavenly bodies,” or “creation.”<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “host of heaven” has various applications in the Bible. Ancient writers sometimes referred symbolically to the sun, moon, and stars as an army (Dt 4:19; Jgs 5:20). In the astrological cults of antiquity, it was believed that celestial bodies were animated by spirits and thus constituted a living army that controlled heavenly destiny. The worship of the host of heaven was one of the earliest forms of idolatry, and was common among the Israelites in their times of regression from serving God (Jer 19:13; Acts 7:42). Although warned against such pagan beliefs (Dt 4:19; 17:3), the Israelites fell into the practice of worshiping heavenly bodies, particularly during the Assyrian and Babylonian periods (2 Kgs 17:16; 21:3-5; 2 Chr 33:3-5; Jer 8:2; Zep 1:5). The corrective to this pagan practice is belief in the Lord as the Creator of heaven and earth, the Almighty, the one who marshaled the heavenly bodies at his command and ordained them to perform a special function (Gn 1:14-19; 2:1; Neh 9:6; Pss 33:6; 103:21; 148:2; Is 40:26; 45:12).<\/p>\n<p>God is frequently called “the Lord God of hosts,” that is, of the celestial armies (Jer 5:14; 38:17; 44:7; Hos 12:5). The heavenly host includes angels or messengers who are associated with the Lord’s work in heaven and on earth. God presides over a heavenly council composed of angels or “sons of God” (Gn 1:26; 1 Kgs 22:19; Jb 1:6; Ps 82; Is 6) whose messengers are sent from the Lord’s council to accomplish his purpose (Gn 28:12-15; Lk 2:13).<\/p>\n<p>Though the hosts are sometimes understood as the stars or angels, the tribes of Israel are also called “the host of the Lord.” The “host of heaven” in Daniel 8:10-11 appears to be figurative language referring to Israel, “the holy people,” and God, the King of Israel, is called “the Prince of the host.”<\/p>\n<p>The Greek words translated “host” occur only twice in the NT (Lk 2:13; Acts 7:42). “Lord of hosts” is used by Paul and James (Rom 9:29; Jas 5:4) as a title for the Lord. The term expresses God’s sovereign might and majesty in history, but the precise identification of the “hosts” that stand at his command is uncertain.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosts, Lord of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOST, HOST OF HEAVEN* Hebrew expressions found frequently in the OT and literally meaning “army” and “army of the skies.” “Host” is basically a military term, occurring nearly 500 times in the OT, and can mean “army” (2 Kgs 18:17), “angels,” “heavenly bodies,” or “creation.” The phrase “host of heaven” has various applications in the Bible. Ancient writers sometimes referred symbolically to the sun, moon, and stars as an army (Dt 4:19; Jgs 5:20). In the astrological cults of antiquity, it was...","summary_en":"HOST, HOST OF HEAVEN* Hebrew expressions found frequently in the OT and literally meaning “army” and “army of the skies.” “Host” is basically a military term, occurring nearly 500 times in the OT, and can mean “army” (2 Kgs 18:17), “angels,” “heavenly bodies,” or “creation.” The phrase “host of heaven” has various applications in the Bible. Ancient writers sometimes referred symbolically to the sun, moon, and stars as an army (Dt 4:19; Jgs 5:20). In the astrological cults of antiquity, it was...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18451,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38657,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Work","title_en":"Work","content_ro":"<h3>WORK<\/h3>\n<p>A term referring either to God’s activity or to people’s regular occupation or employment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheValueofWork\">The Value of Work<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s positive outlook on work is rooted in its teaching about God. Unlike other ancient religious writings, which regarded creation as something beneath the dignity of the Supreme Being, Scripture unashamedly describes God as a worker. Like a manual laborer, he made the universe as “the work of his fingers” (Ps 8:3). He worked with his raw material just as a potter works with the clay (Is 45:9). The intricate development of the unborn child in the womb and the vast, magnificent spread of the sky both display his supreme craftsmanship (Pss 139:13-16; 19:1). In fact, all creation bears witness to his wisdom and skill (104:24). The almighty Creator even had his rest day (Gn 2:2-3) and enjoyed job satisfaction when surveying his achievements at the end of the week (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>This vivid biblical description of a working God reaches its climax with the incarnation of Jesus. The “work” that Jesus was given to do (Jn 4:34) was, of course, the unique task of redemption. But he was also a worker in the ordinary sense. His contemporaries knew him as “a carpenter” (Mk 6:3). In NT times carpentry and joinery were muscle-building trades. So the Jesus who stormed through the temple, overturning tables and driving out the men and animals (Jn 2:14-16), was no pale weakling but a workingman whose hands had been hardened by years of toil with the ax, saw, and hammer. Hard, physical labor was not beneath the dignity of the Son of God.<\/p>\n<p>If the Bible’s teaching about God enhances work’s dignity, its account of mankind’s creation gives all human labor the mark of normality. God “took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to till it and keep it” (Gn 2:15). And God’s first command, to “fill the earth and subdue it” (1:28), implied a great deal of work for both man and woman. In an important sense, people today are obeying that command of their Creator when they do their daily work, whether they acknowledge him or not. Work did not, therefore, arrive in the world as a direct result of the fall into sin (though sin did spoil working conditions, 3:17-19). Work was planned by God from the dawn of history for mankind’s good—as natural to men and women as sunset is to day (Ps 104:19-23).<\/p>\n<p>With this firm emphasis on the dignity and normality of labor, it is no surprise to find that Scripture strongly condemns idleness. “Go to the ant, O sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise” (Prv 6:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Paul is equally blunt: “If any one will not work, let him not eat” (2 Thes 3:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). He set a good example (Acts 20:33-35; 1 Thes 2:9). Those who refuse to work, he insists, even for spiritual reasons, earn no respect from non-Christian onlookers by depending on others to pay their bills (1 Thes 4:11-12). Wage earners, on the other hand, have the material resources of Christian service (Eph 4:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vocations\">Vocations<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the Greeks and Romans catalogued jobs according to importance or desirability. Routine manual labor, for example, was considered inferior to work involving mental activity.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish teaching contrasts strongly with this attitude. “Hate not laborious work,” taught the rabbis (Ecclus 7:15). Even the scholar had to spend some time in manual work. A few trades, like that of the tanner, were regarded as undesirable (a taboo broken very quickly by the early church—see Acts 9:43), but there is no indication in the Bible that some jobs are more worthwhile than others in God’s sight. The Lord calls craftsmen into his service (Ex 31:1-11), just as much as prophets (Is 6:8-9). So Amos was summoned from his fruit-picking to prophesy (Am 7:14-15), but with no suggestion that he was being promoted to a superior role. The important thing was not the nature of the occupation but the readiness to obey God’s call and to witness faithfully to him, whatever the job.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible has some poignant things to say about the relationship between employer and employee. The OT prophets voice the strongest criticism. God is especially concerned to see that the weak get justice (Is 1:17; Mi 6:8). So, naturally, his spokesmen declare his anger when employers exploit their laborers and cheat them of their wages (Jer 22:13; Mal 3:5; cf. Jas 5:4). A person who wants to please God must “stop oppressing those who work for [him] and treat them fairly and give them what they earn” (Is 58:6, <span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Bible times, the scales were weighted heavily in favor of the employer. But Scripture is not blind to the existence of selfish, greedy employees. Every worker deserves a just wage (Lk 10:7), but those with special power must not try to increase their pay by threats and violence (3:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorkingforChrist\">Working for Christ<\/p>\n<p>God is a working God who is pleased when his people work hard and conscientiously. That conviction lies at the heart of the Bible’s teaching about Christian attitudes toward secular employment. And quite naturally, the NT extends the same positive emphasis to cover all Christian service, paid or unpaid. The world is God’s harvest field, said Jesus, waiting for Christian reapers to move in and evangelize (Mt 9:37-38). Paul used the same agricultural illustration and added another from the building trade to describe the Lord’s work of evangelism and teaching (1 Cor 3:6-15). Church leaders must work especially hard, he said (1 Thes 5:12), to stimulate <em>all<\/em> God’s people to be involved in the Lord’s work (1 Cor 15:58). All Christians should see themselves as “God’s coworkers” (3:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORK<\/h3>\n<p>A term referring either to God’s activity or to people’s regular occupation or employment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheValueofWork\">The Value of Work<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s positive outlook on work is rooted in its teaching about God. Unlike other ancient religious writings, which regarded creation as something beneath the dignity of the Supreme Being, Scripture unashamedly describes God as a worker. Like a manual laborer, he made the universe as “the work of his fingers” (Ps 8:3). He worked with his raw material just as a potter works with the clay (Is 45:9). The intricate development of the unborn child in the womb and the vast, magnificent spread of the sky both display his supreme craftsmanship (Pss 139:13-16; 19:1). In fact, all creation bears witness to his wisdom and skill (104:24). The almighty Creator even had his rest day (Gn 2:2-3) and enjoyed job satisfaction when surveying his achievements at the end of the week (1:31).<\/p>\n<p>This vivid biblical description of a working God reaches its climax with the incarnation of Jesus. The “work” that Jesus was given to do (Jn 4:34) was, of course, the unique task of redemption. But he was also a worker in the ordinary sense. His contemporaries knew him as “a carpenter” (Mk 6:3). In NT times carpentry and joinery were muscle-building trades. So the Jesus who stormed through the temple, overturning tables and driving out the men and animals (Jn 2:14-16), was no pale weakling but a workingman whose hands had been hardened by years of toil with the ax, saw, and hammer. Hard, physical labor was not beneath the dignity of the Son of God.<\/p>\n<p>If the Bible’s teaching about God enhances work’s dignity, its account of mankind’s creation gives all human labor the mark of normality. God “took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to till it and keep it” (Gn 2:15). And God’s first command, to “fill the earth and subdue it” (1:28), implied a great deal of work for both man and woman. In an important sense, people today are obeying that command of their Creator when they do their daily work, whether they acknowledge him or not. Work did not, therefore, arrive in the world as a direct result of the fall into sin (though sin did spoil working conditions, 3:17-19). Work was planned by God from the dawn of history for mankind’s good—as natural to men and women as sunset is to day (Ps 104:19-23).<\/p>\n<p>With this firm emphasis on the dignity and normality of labor, it is no surprise to find that Scripture strongly condemns idleness. “Go to the ant, O sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise” (Prv 6:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Paul is equally blunt: “If any one will not work, let him not eat” (2 Thes 3:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). He set a good example (Acts 20:33-35; 1 Thes 2:9). Those who refuse to work, he insists, even for spiritual reasons, earn no respect from non-Christian onlookers by depending on others to pay their bills (1 Thes 4:11-12). Wage earners, on the other hand, have the material resources of Christian service (Eph 4:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vocations\">Vocations<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the Greeks and Romans catalogued jobs according to importance or desirability. Routine manual labor, for example, was considered inferior to work involving mental activity.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish teaching contrasts strongly with this attitude. “Hate not laborious work,” taught the rabbis (Ecclus 7:15). Even the scholar had to spend some time in manual work. A few trades, like that of the tanner, were regarded as undesirable (a taboo broken very quickly by the early church—see Acts 9:43), but there is no indication in the Bible that some jobs are more worthwhile than others in God’s sight. The Lord calls craftsmen into his service (Ex 31:1-11), just as much as prophets (Is 6:8-9). So Amos was summoned from his fruit-picking to prophesy (Am 7:14-15), but with no suggestion that he was being promoted to a superior role. The important thing was not the nature of the occupation but the readiness to obey God’s call and to witness faithfully to him, whatever the job.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible has some poignant things to say about the relationship between employer and employee. The OT prophets voice the strongest criticism. God is especially concerned to see that the weak get justice (Is 1:17; Mi 6:8). So, naturally, his spokesmen declare his anger when employers exploit their laborers and cheat them of their wages (Jer 22:13; Mal 3:5; cf. Jas 5:4). A person who wants to please God must “stop oppressing those who work for [him] and treat them fairly and give them what they earn” (Is 58:6, <span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Bible times, the scales were weighted heavily in favor of the employer. But Scripture is not blind to the existence of selfish, greedy employees. Every worker deserves a just wage (Lk 10:7), but those with special power must not try to increase their pay by threats and violence (3:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorkingforChrist\">Working for Christ<\/p>\n<p>God is a working God who is pleased when his people work hard and conscientiously. That conviction lies at the heart of the Bible’s teaching about Christian attitudes toward secular employment. And quite naturally, the NT extends the same positive emphasis to cover all Christian service, paid or unpaid. The world is God’s harvest field, said Jesus, waiting for Christian reapers to move in and evangelize (Mt 9:37-38). Paul used the same agricultural illustration and added another from the building trade to describe the Lord’s work of evangelism and teaching (1 Cor 3:6-15). Church leaders must work especially hard, he said (1 Thes 5:12), to stimulate <em>all<\/em> God’s people to be involved in the Lord’s work (1 Cor 15:58). All Christians should see themselves as “God’s coworkers” (3:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORK A term referring either to God’s activity or to people’s regular occupation or employment. The Value of Work The Bible’s positive outlook on work is rooted in its teaching about God. Unlike other ancient religious writings, which regarded creation as something beneath the dignity of the Supreme Being, Scripture unashamedly describes God as a worker. Like a manual laborer, he made the universe as “the work of his fingers” (Ps 8:3). He worked with his raw material just as a potter works wi...","summary_en":"WORK A term referring either to God’s activity or to people’s regular occupation or employment. The Value of Work The Bible’s positive outlook on work is rooted in its teaching about God. Unlike other ancient religious writings, which regarded creation as something beneath the dignity of the Supreme Being, Scripture unashamedly describes God as a worker. Like a manual laborer, he made the universe as “the work of his fingers” (Ps 8:3). He worked with his raw material just as a potter works wi...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59045,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","summary_en":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86671,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","summary_en":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114297,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","summary_en":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141923,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4<\/strong> These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to <em>harvest<\/em> their <em>fields<\/em>. • <em>cries . . . have reached the ears of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> of Heaven’s Armies<\/em> (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to act when the oppressed cannot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","summary_en":"5:4 These rich people (5:1) were exploitive landowners. Like those in 2:6 who oppressed and dragged Christians into court, they were exploiting the day laborers whose work was to harvest their fields. • cries . . . have reached the ears of the Lord: God hears the prayers of the oppressed (see Deut 24:14-15). Even while the laborers are still suffering, the Lord has heard (see Exod 3:7). • the Lord of Heaven’s Armies (1 Sam 17:45; Ps 103:20-21; Rom 9:29): This title emphasizes God’s power to a...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":18469,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67777,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95403,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":18468,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35562,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Christ*, Sinlessness","title_en":"of Christ*, Sinlessness","content_ro":"<h3>SINLESSNESS OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The Scripture (quoted here from the <span>rsv<\/span>) leaves no question that Christ is regarded as sinless. He is declared to be the perfect Son of God in every respect. His human nature is holy, without any sin. This is repeatedly and explicitly affirmed in unmistakable terms. Paul states that Christ “knew no sin” (2 Cor 5:21). Peter says “he committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips” (1 Pt 2:22); he calls him “righteous” (3:18). The writer to the Hebrews says that Christ is “holy, blameless, unstained, separated from sinners” (Heb 7:26). James speaks of him as “the righteous man” (Jas 5:6), and John affirms that “in him there is no sin” (1 Jn 3:5). In the Gospels and in the apostolic preaching, Jesus is repeatedly witnessed to as the Holy Son of God, the Holy One of God, the Holy and Righteous One (Lk 1:35; Jn 6:69; Acts 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was able to ask his enemies with penetrating conviction, “Which of you convicts me of sin?” (Jn 8:46). He gives ample evidence of a holy self-consciousness throughout his entire lifetime. Numerous references and inferences are made to his exemption from the unrighteousness of sin and disobedience. He kept the entire law in every detail and in each respect (Rom 10:4; Heb 4:15). Pilate’s wife regarded Jesus as a righteous man, and Pilate himself spoke of him as an innocent man (Mt 27:19, 24). Even Judas realized that he himself had sinned by “betraying innocent blood” (Mt 27:4).<\/p>\n<p>The issue of Christ’s sinlessness is not confined merely to the fact that he did not commit any sin. There is a deeper theological significance to the question, which has to do with the issue of whether Christ was at all able to sin. Was it even possible for him to sin? This concern has been spoken of in theology as his impeccability (Christ was unable to sin), or on the contrary position, his peccability (Christ was able to sin, even though he did not exercise his will in this direction). The problems on both of these views appear immediately: If Christ was unable to sin, how could he really have been tempted (and we have ample data in Scripture concerning Jesus’ temptations)? If Christ could have sinned, even though he did not do so, does this mean that God can sin (for Christ was in every respect fully the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity)? It is useless to say that Jesus could have sinned with respect to his human nature but not so with respect to his divine nature, because this ignores the indissoluble unity of the person of the God-man. We may not separate the human nature from the divine nature, as though in his humanity he could have acted independently of his divinity. This was, in part, the error of the ancient Nestorian heretics. Whatever the Son of God does, he does with and in his entire divine-human nature.<\/p>\n<p>Essentially, there is no contradiction between being tempted and being unable to sin. Of course, it is difficult for us to imagine how this can be possible. This is because we are sinners and stand within the experiential knowledge of evil. Christ’s person is absolutely unique; we can little imagine how real were his temptations by the devil in the wilderness and throughout his life (Lk 22:28, 39-46), even though it was impossible for him to actually sin.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps an illustration may be helpful. Let us imagine there is an absolutely impregnable fortress that cannot be taken by the enemy as long as the defenses are maintained. (If we may, for the purpose of illustration, let us rule out the terrible destructive forces of modern warfare.) Because the fortress is incapable of being taken by assault and is in reality unconquerable, as long as the defenses are kept up, it does not mean that it cannot be besieged and furiously attacked. So it may be with respect to the reality of Christ’s temptations and his inability to sin as the Holy Son of God.<\/p>\n<p>His temptations were real. Therefore, “we have not a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sin. Let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need” (Heb 4:15-16, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SINLESSNESS OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The Scripture (quoted here from the <span>rsv<\/span>) leaves no question that Christ is regarded as sinless. He is declared to be the perfect Son of God in every respect. His human nature is holy, without any sin. This is repeatedly and explicitly affirmed in unmistakable terms. Paul states that Christ “knew no sin” (2 Cor 5:21). Peter says “he committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips” (1 Pt 2:22); he calls him “righteous” (3:18). The writer to the Hebrews says that Christ is “holy, blameless, unstained, separated from sinners” (Heb 7:26). James speaks of him as “the righteous man” (Jas 5:6), and John affirms that “in him there is no sin” (1 Jn 3:5). In the Gospels and in the apostolic preaching, Jesus is repeatedly witnessed to as the Holy Son of God, the Holy One of God, the Holy and Righteous One (Lk 1:35; Jn 6:69; Acts 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was able to ask his enemies with penetrating conviction, “Which of you convicts me of sin?” (Jn 8:46). He gives ample evidence of a holy self-consciousness throughout his entire lifetime. Numerous references and inferences are made to his exemption from the unrighteousness of sin and disobedience. He kept the entire law in every detail and in each respect (Rom 10:4; Heb 4:15). Pilate’s wife regarded Jesus as a righteous man, and Pilate himself spoke of him as an innocent man (Mt 27:19, 24). Even Judas realized that he himself had sinned by “betraying innocent blood” (Mt 27:4).<\/p>\n<p>The issue of Christ’s sinlessness is not confined merely to the fact that he did not commit any sin. There is a deeper theological significance to the question, which has to do with the issue of whether Christ was at all able to sin. Was it even possible for him to sin? This concern has been spoken of in theology as his impeccability (Christ was unable to sin), or on the contrary position, his peccability (Christ was able to sin, even though he did not exercise his will in this direction). The problems on both of these views appear immediately: If Christ was unable to sin, how could he really have been tempted (and we have ample data in Scripture concerning Jesus’ temptations)? If Christ could have sinned, even though he did not do so, does this mean that God can sin (for Christ was in every respect fully the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity)? It is useless to say that Jesus could have sinned with respect to his human nature but not so with respect to his divine nature, because this ignores the indissoluble unity of the person of the God-man. We may not separate the human nature from the divine nature, as though in his humanity he could have acted independently of his divinity. This was, in part, the error of the ancient Nestorian heretics. Whatever the Son of God does, he does with and in his entire divine-human nature.<\/p>\n<p>Essentially, there is no contradiction between being tempted and being unable to sin. Of course, it is difficult for us to imagine how this can be possible. This is because we are sinners and stand within the experiential knowledge of evil. Christ’s person is absolutely unique; we can little imagine how real were his temptations by the devil in the wilderness and throughout his life (Lk 22:28, 39-46), even though it was impossible for him to actually sin.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps an illustration may be helpful. Let us imagine there is an absolutely impregnable fortress that cannot be taken by the enemy as long as the defenses are maintained. (If we may, for the purpose of illustration, let us rule out the terrible destructive forces of modern warfare.) Because the fortress is incapable of being taken by assault and is in reality unconquerable, as long as the defenses are kept up, it does not mean that it cannot be besieged and furiously attacked. So it may be with respect to the reality of Christ’s temptations and his inability to sin as the Holy Son of God.<\/p>\n<p>His temptations were real. Therefore, “we have not a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sin. Let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need” (Heb 4:15-16, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SINLESSNESS OF CHRIST* The Scripture (quoted here from the rsv) leaves no question that Christ is regarded as sinless. He is declared to be the perfect Son of God in every respect. His human nature is holy, without any sin. This is repeatedly and explicitly affirmed in unmistakable terms. Paul states that Christ “knew no sin” (2 Cor 5:21). Peter says “he committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips” (1 Pt 2:22); he calls him “righteous” (3:18). The writer to the Hebrews says that Christ i...","summary_en":"SINLESSNESS OF CHRIST* The Scripture (quoted here from the rsv) leaves no question that Christ is regarded as sinless. He is declared to be the perfect Son of God in every respect. His human nature is holy, without any sin. This is repeatedly and explicitly affirmed in unmistakable terms. Paul states that Christ “knew no sin” (2 Cor 5:21). Peter says “he committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips” (1 Pt 2:22); he calls him “righteous” (3:18). The writer to the Hebrews says that Christ i...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40235,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","title_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","summary_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59046,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","summary_en":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86672,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","summary_en":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114298,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","summary_en":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141924,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>killed innocent people<\/em> (or <em>killed the Righteous One<\/em>): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","summary_en":"5:6 killed innocent people (or killed the Righteous One): In this context, the phrase most likely refers to innocent people such as the oppressed laborers in this paragraph rather than to Jesus (cp. Acts 3:14; 7:52).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":12765,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rain*, Former","title_en":"Rain*, Former","content_ro":"<h3>FORMER RAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV term for important rainfall that begins the agricultural year in Palestine, usually in October (Dt 11:14; Jer 5:24; Jas 5:7). <em>See<\/em> Palestine.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FORMER RAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV term for important rainfall that begins the agricultural year in Palestine, usually in October (Dt 11:14; Jer 5:24; Jas 5:7). <em>See<\/em> Palestine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FORMER RAIN* KJV term for important rainfall that begins the agricultural year in Palestine, usually in October (Dt 11:14; Jer 5:24; Jas 5:7). See Palestine.","summary_en":"FORMER RAIN* KJV term for important rainfall that begins the agricultural year in Palestine, usually in October (Dt 11:14; Jer 5:24; Jas 5:7). See Palestine.","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18446,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22627,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rain*, Latter","title_en":"Rain*, Latter","content_ro":"<h3>LATTER RAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Annual spring rainfall in Palestine from late March to early April, following the citrus harvest and preceding the wheat and barley harvests. The spring rains normally conclude the rainy season until the resumption of the fall (early) rains in October. In Scripture the occurrence or absence of the spring rains was often associated with God’s favor or displeasure with Israel (Dt 11:13-17; Jb 29:23; Prv 16:15; Jer 3:3; Hos 6:3; Jl 2:23; Zec 10:1; Jas 5:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LATTER RAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Annual spring rainfall in Palestine from late March to early April, following the citrus harvest and preceding the wheat and barley harvests. The spring rains normally conclude the rainy season until the resumption of the fall (early) rains in October. In Scripture the occurrence or absence of the spring rains was often associated with God’s favor or displeasure with Israel (Dt 11:13-17; Jb 29:23; Prv 16:15; Jer 3:3; Hos 6:3; Jl 2:23; Zec 10:1; Jas 5:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LATTER RAIN* Annual spring rainfall in Palestine from late March to early April, following the citrus harvest and preceding the wheat and barley harvests. The spring rains normally conclude the rainy season until the resumption of the fall (early) rains in October. In Scripture the occurrence or absence of the spring rains was often associated with God’s favor or displeasure with Israel (Dt 11:13-17; Jb 29:23; Prv 16:15; Jer 3:3; Hos 6:3; Jl 2:23; Zec 10:1; Jas 5:7).","summary_en":"LATTER RAIN* Annual spring rainfall in Palestine from late March to early April, following the citrus harvest and preceding the wheat and barley harvests. The spring rains normally conclude the rainy season until the resumption of the fall (early) rains in October. In Scripture the occurrence or absence of the spring rains was often associated with God’s favor or displeasure with Israel (Dt 11:13-17; Jb 29:23; Prv 16:15; Jer 3:3; Hos 6:3; Jl 2:23; Zec 10:1; Jas 5:7).","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23424,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lord","title_en":"Lord","content_ro":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","summary_en":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28907,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Parousia*","title_en":"Parousia*","content_ro":"<h3>PAROUSIA*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “presence,” “arrival,” “appearance,” or “coming.” While it is used often with reference to people (1 Cor 16:17; 2 Cor 7:6; 10:10; Phil 1:26; 2:12) and once with reference to the Antichrist (2 Thes 2:9), the word is employed most frequently with reference to Christ (Mt 24:3, 27, 37-39; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thes 2:1, 8). Consequently, the Parousia has come to denote the second coming of Christ at the end of the ages.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was probably responsible for the technical emphasis on Christ’s return. While rejecting all attempts to calculate the time (1 Thes 5:1-2; 2 Thes 2:2-3; cf. Mt 24:4-36), he nonetheless paints a vivid picture of the Parousia (1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 1:7–2:8; see also 1 Cor 15:20-28, 50-55). According to his teaching, it will be a personal, visible, sudden, and glorious coming (1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15-17). Though apparently he felt he and his readers would experience Christ’s return (1 Thes 4:15; cf. Rom 8:23; 13:11), his approaching martyrdom caused him to moderate his thinking (Phil 1:23). James, also sensing the delay in Christ’s return, called for patience (Jas 5:7-8). Peter, too, cautioned against allowing the delay to create doubt (2 Pt 3:8-10). The message is not myth (2 Pt 1:16), and scoffers will be silenced (3:3-4). John encouraged consistent faith lest the believer be put to shame at his coming (1 Jn 2:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAROUSIA*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “presence,” “arrival,” “appearance,” or “coming.” While it is used often with reference to people (1 Cor 16:17; 2 Cor 7:6; 10:10; Phil 1:26; 2:12) and once with reference to the Antichrist (2 Thes 2:9), the word is employed most frequently with reference to Christ (Mt 24:3, 27, 37-39; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thes 2:1, 8). Consequently, the Parousia has come to denote the second coming of Christ at the end of the ages.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was probably responsible for the technical emphasis on Christ’s return. While rejecting all attempts to calculate the time (1 Thes 5:1-2; 2 Thes 2:2-3; cf. Mt 24:4-36), he nonetheless paints a vivid picture of the Parousia (1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 1:7–2:8; see also 1 Cor 15:20-28, 50-55). According to his teaching, it will be a personal, visible, sudden, and glorious coming (1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15-17). Though apparently he felt he and his readers would experience Christ’s return (1 Thes 4:15; cf. Rom 8:23; 13:11), his approaching martyrdom caused him to moderate his thinking (Phil 1:23). James, also sensing the delay in Christ’s return, called for patience (Jas 5:7-8). Peter, too, cautioned against allowing the delay to create doubt (2 Pt 3:8-10). The message is not myth (2 Pt 1:16), and scoffers will be silenced (3:3-4). John encouraged consistent faith lest the believer be put to shame at his coming (1 Jn 2:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAROUSIA* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “presence,” “arrival,” “appearance,” or “coming.” While it is used often with reference to people (1 Cor 16:17; 2 Cor 7:6; 10:10; Phil 1:26; 2:12) and once with reference to the Antichrist (2 Thes 2:9), the word is employed most frequently with reference to Christ (Mt 24:3, 27, 37-39; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thes 2:1, 8). Consequently, the Parousia has come to denote the second coming of Christ at the end of the ages. Pau...","summary_en":"PAROUSIA* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “presence,” “arrival,” “appearance,” or “coming.” While it is used often with reference to people (1 Cor 16:17; 2 Cor 7:6; 10:10; Phil 1:26; 2:12) and once with reference to the Antichrist (2 Thes 2:9), the word is employed most frequently with reference to Christ (Mt 24:3, 27, 37-39; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thes 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thes 2:1, 8). Consequently, the Parousia has come to denote the second coming of Christ at the end of the ages. Pau...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29036,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Patience","title_en":"Patience","content_ro":"<h3>PATIENCE<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to take a great deal of punishment from evil people or circumstances without losing one’s temper, without becoming irritated and angry, or without taking vengeance. It includes the capacity to bear pain or trials without complaint, the ability to forbear under severe provocation, and the self-control that keeps one from acting rashly even though suffering opposition or adversity.<\/p>\n<p>The usual Hebrew expression for patience is related to the verb “to be long” and involves the idea of being long to get riled or slow to become angry. Two different Greek words were translated by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators with the word “patience.” One of the words has the idea of “remaining firm under” tests and trials and is better translated “endurance” or “steadfastness.” The other Greek word is related to the above Hebrew meaning and refers to patience as “long-spiritedness” or “calmness of spirit” even though under severe provocation to lose one’s temper.<\/p>\n<p>The great biblical illustration of patience in operation is God himself. Several passages speak of him, in conjunction with other gracious attributes, as “slow to anger.” In a context that stresses Israel’s rebellion and provocation of God, he is contrasted as a God who is forgiving, gracious, compassionate, slow to anger, and abounding in lovingkindness (Neh 9:17). The psalmist declares, “Thou, O Lord, art a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Ps 86:15, <span>rsv<\/span>; see also Ex 34:6; Nm 14:18; Ps 103:8; Jl 2:13; Jon 4:2). In addition, the virtue of a patient spirit on the part of mankind is extolled in the OT, especially in Proverbs (Prv 14:29; 15:18; 16:32; 25:15; see also Eccl 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>The NT also stresses the patience of the Lord. It is God’s kindness, forbearance, and patience that lead people to repentance (Rom 2:4). God was patient in holding off the Flood for the sinners of Noah’s day while the ark was being built, thereby giving more time for repentance (1 Pt 3:20). Probably the greatest of the NT references to God’s patience is in 2 Peter 3:9. The delay in Christ’s return is not an indication of slowness on God’s part, says Peter, but of his long-suffering, not being willing that anyone should perish. A specific reference to Jesus Christ’s patience is made by Paul, who claimed that, in his case, Jesus was able to demonstrate perfect patience (1 Tm 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Patience, which is an attribute of our God and of our Lord Jesus Christ, is also to characterize each Christian. Paul’s prayer for the Colossians is that they might demonstrate this quality (Col 1:11). It is one of the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), an attribute of love (1 Cor 13:4), and a virtue (Col 3:12; see also 2 Tm 3:10). In addition, Christians are exhorted to be patient (1 Thes 5:14). If we are not, we will be treated as the slave in a parable that Jesus told. This slave pleaded with his lord, to whom he owed a great sum, for patience, promising to pay all. The lord was patient and forgave all the debt, until he found out that the slave had refused to show the same patience to a fellow servant who owed him a pittance in comparison (Mt 18:26-29).<\/p>\n<p>In some contexts, the word “patience” takes on the more general meaning of waiting long and expectantly for something. The farmer waits patiently for the crop to come (Jas 5:7b). Abraham waited patiently for God’s promise to give him the land of Canaan to be fulfilled and died without seeing what was promised, although still believing (Heb 6:15; 11:39). Finally, all Christians are commanded to be long-suffering until the coming of the Lord (Jas 5:7a).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PATIENCE<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to take a great deal of punishment from evil people or circumstances without losing one’s temper, without becoming irritated and angry, or without taking vengeance. It includes the capacity to bear pain or trials without complaint, the ability to forbear under severe provocation, and the self-control that keeps one from acting rashly even though suffering opposition or adversity.<\/p>\n<p>The usual Hebrew expression for patience is related to the verb “to be long” and involves the idea of being long to get riled or slow to become angry. Two different Greek words were translated by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators with the word “patience.” One of the words has the idea of “remaining firm under” tests and trials and is better translated “endurance” or “steadfastness.” The other Greek word is related to the above Hebrew meaning and refers to patience as “long-spiritedness” or “calmness of spirit” even though under severe provocation to lose one’s temper.<\/p>\n<p>The great biblical illustration of patience in operation is God himself. Several passages speak of him, in conjunction with other gracious attributes, as “slow to anger.” In a context that stresses Israel’s rebellion and provocation of God, he is contrasted as a God who is forgiving, gracious, compassionate, slow to anger, and abounding in lovingkindness (Neh 9:17). The psalmist declares, “Thou, O Lord, art a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Ps 86:15, <span>rsv<\/span>; see also Ex 34:6; Nm 14:18; Ps 103:8; Jl 2:13; Jon 4:2). In addition, the virtue of a patient spirit on the part of mankind is extolled in the OT, especially in Proverbs (Prv 14:29; 15:18; 16:32; 25:15; see also Eccl 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>The NT also stresses the patience of the Lord. It is God’s kindness, forbearance, and patience that lead people to repentance (Rom 2:4). God was patient in holding off the Flood for the sinners of Noah’s day while the ark was being built, thereby giving more time for repentance (1 Pt 3:20). Probably the greatest of the NT references to God’s patience is in 2 Peter 3:9. The delay in Christ’s return is not an indication of slowness on God’s part, says Peter, but of his long-suffering, not being willing that anyone should perish. A specific reference to Jesus Christ’s patience is made by Paul, who claimed that, in his case, Jesus was able to demonstrate perfect patience (1 Tm 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Patience, which is an attribute of our God and of our Lord Jesus Christ, is also to characterize each Christian. Paul’s prayer for the Colossians is that they might demonstrate this quality (Col 1:11). It is one of the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), an attribute of love (1 Cor 13:4), and a virtue (Col 3:12; see also 2 Tm 3:10). In addition, Christians are exhorted to be patient (1 Thes 5:14). If we are not, we will be treated as the slave in a parable that Jesus told. This slave pleaded with his lord, to whom he owed a great sum, for patience, promising to pay all. The lord was patient and forgave all the debt, until he found out that the slave had refused to show the same patience to a fellow servant who owed him a pittance in comparison (Mt 18:26-29).<\/p>\n<p>In some contexts, the word “patience” takes on the more general meaning of waiting long and expectantly for something. The farmer waits patiently for the crop to come (Jas 5:7b). Abraham waited patiently for God’s promise to give him the land of Canaan to be fulfilled and died without seeing what was promised, although still believing (Heb 6:15; 11:39). Finally, all Christians are commanded to be long-suffering until the coming of the Lord (Jas 5:7a).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PATIENCE Ability to take a great deal of punishment from evil people or circumstances without losing one’s temper, without becoming irritated and angry, or without taking vengeance. It includes the capacity to bear pain or trials without complaint, the ability to forbear under severe provocation, and the self-control that keeps one from acting rashly even though suffering opposition or adversity. The usual Hebrew expression for patience is related to the verb “to be long” and involves the ide...","summary_en":"PATIENCE Ability to take a great deal of punishment from evil people or circumstances without losing one’s temper, without becoming irritated and angry, or without taking vengeance. It includes the capacity to bear pain or trials without complaint, the ability to forbear under severe provocation, and the self-control that keeps one from acting rashly even though suffering opposition or adversity. The usual Hebrew expression for patience is related to the verb “to be long” and involves the ide...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59047,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","summary_en":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86673,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","summary_en":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114299,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","summary_en":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7-8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At <em>the Lord’s return<\/em><em>,<\/em> the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","summary_en":"5:7-8 be patient: This is the ultimate resolution for the poor in their economic pressures and for the unjust treatment by the wicked rich (5:1-6; see 2:6-7). Even though the poor have been marginalized and oppressed, they must not give up or strike out at their oppressors. At the Lord’s return, the faithful will receive their final reward (Isa 40:10; Luke 6:20-35; 1 Cor 15:23; 1 Pet 1:17; 5:4; Rev 22:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67772,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95398,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123024,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150650,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":18471,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Coming of Christ*, Second","title_en":"Coming of Christ*, Second","content_ro":"<h3>SECOND COMING OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns, principally by “coming” (which is the regular translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parousia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “presence,” “visit,” “arrival,” “advent,” especially of a royal or distinguished person) but also by “appearing” (as in 2 Tm 4:8; Ti 2:13), “revealing,” or “revelation” (1 Cor 1:7). These different verbs and nouns point to the same event but highlight different aspects of it, especially the manifestation of God’s glory in Christ when he comes. The time of this event is repeatedly referred to as “the Day,” sometimes absolutely (as in Rom 13:12; 1 Cor 3:13; Heb 10:25), more often with a qualification, such as “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16), “the day of the Lord” (1 Thes 5:2; 2 Thes 2:2), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), “the day of Jesus Christ” (Phil 1:6), and “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8). When such expressions are used, there is often some reference to the judgment to be passed at the coming of Christ: his day is “the day of judgment” (1 Jn 4:17) or “the day of wrath” (Rom 2:5). For the people of God, however, it is “the day of redemption” (Eph 4:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheProclamationoftheNewTestament\">The Proclamation of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>That the second coming of Christ was an essential element in the gospel as preached in the apostolic age is clear from many NT writings (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The origin of the Second Coming is found in the teachings of Jesus before his death. Speaking of himself as the Son of Man, Jesus said, “The day when the Son of man is revealed” (Lk 17:30) he will come “in clouds with great power and glory” (Mk 13:26). This language is derived from the OT, especially from Daniel’s vision in which “one like a son of man” is brought “with the clouds of heaven” to receive everlasting dominion from the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:13-14). A cloud or clouds regularly enveloped the divine glory in the OT (as in Ex 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:10-11); their mention in connection with the coming of the Son of Man indicates that, when he comes, the glory of God will be manifested in him. Jesus’ last reference to his second coming came at his trial before the Jewish authorities when, asked by the high priest to say whether or not he was “the Christ, the Son of the Blessed,” he replied, “I am; and you will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mk 14:61-62).<\/p>\n<p>After the Gospels, the rest of the NT affirms the eventuality of Christ’s second coming. The record of Acts begins with the angels’ assurance at the ascension of Christ that “this Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11). The summaries of apostolic addresses that the book contains make repeated references to Jesus as “the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead” (10:42; cf. 17:31).<\/p>\n<p>Writing to his converts in Thessalonica (c. <span>AD<\/span> 51) a few weeks after they first heard and believed the gospel, Paul reminds them how they had “turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come” (1 Thes 1:9-10). Here Jesus’ expected deliverance of his people from end-time judgment is put on the same plane as his historical resurrection; the Christian way of life embraces both serving God and waiting for Christ. This note of waiting for Christ is repeated and amplified several times in this short letter. A few years later Paul uses similar language when writing to his converts in Corinth (cf. Acts 18:1-18): “You are not lacking in any spiritual gift, as you wait for the revealing of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:7). And in what may have been his last letter he speaks of “the crown of righteousness” that the Lord will award him “on that Day, and not only to me,” he adds, “but also to all who have loved his appearing” (2 Tm 4:8). To love his appearing and to wait for him are two different ways of expressing the same attitude.<\/p>\n<p>The writer to the Hebrews encourages his readers with the assurance that in a little while “the coming one shall come and shall not tarry” (Heb 10:37). James says that “the coming of the Lord is at hand” (Jas 5:8). Peter speaks of the time “when the chief Shepherd is manifested” (1 Pt 5:4). The Revelation to John ends with the risen Lord’s promise, “Surely I am coming soon,” and the church’s response, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!” (Rv 22:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecondComingandtheResurrection\">The Second Coming and the Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Thessalonians, written not more than 20 years after the death and resurrection of Christ, his coming again is presented by way of comfort and encouragement to those whose Christian friends had died. Paul had been compelled to leave Thessalonica before he had time to give his converts there as much teaching as they required, and when some of their number died shortly after his departure, their friends wondered if they would suffer some serious disadvantage at the Second Coming, in contrast to those who would still be alive to greet the returning Lord. No, says Paul, “those who have fallen asleep” will suffer no disadvantage. On the contrary, the first thing to happen when “the Lord himself will descend from heaven” is that “the dead in Christ will rise.” Only after that will those who survive until then be caught away to join them and be forever “with the Lord” (1 Thes 4:15-17). Fuller information on the same subject is given in 1 Corinthians, written about five years later. There the resurrection of believers is the full harvest that was inaugurated by the resurrection of Christ: “Christ the first fruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ” (1 Cor 15:23). An additional revelation is imparted: not only will each believer who has died be raised in a “spiritual body” (v 44) but also those who are still alive will be “changed” so as to have bodies suitable for life in resurrection. For dead and living believers alike, Paul proclaimed that “as we have borne the image of the man of dust [i.e., Adam; cf. Gn 2:7], we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven [i.e., the risen Christ]” (1 Cor 15:49). To the same effect, Paul writes (a few years later still) in Philippians 3:20-21 that from heaven “we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body.” A deeper unveiling of what this will involve is made in Romans 8:18-23, where the resurrection of the people of Christ is the catalyst for the liberation and glorious renewal of all creation.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Coming and Judgment<\/h5>\n<p>The association of judgment with the Second Coming arises in Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels. The association is equally plain in the epistles of the NT. Paul, in particular, put the subject on a personal level. He forbade premature judgment of fellow Christians: “Do not pronounce judgment before the time, before the Lord comes” (1 Cor 4:5). The Lord will conduct an investigation that will bring to light the hidden motives of the heart. Paul knew that his own apostolic work would be assessed on “the day of Christ” (Phil 2:16; 1 Thes 2:19). Elsewhere, Paul urges his converts to bear in mind that they, with himself, must appear before the divine tribunal, variously called “the judgment seat of God” (where “each of us shall give account of himself,” Rom 14:10-12) or “the judgment seat of Christ” (where each will “receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body,” 2 Cor 5:10). It seems clear that this judgment is to take place at the second coming of Christ, who will then “judge the living and the dead” (2 Tm 4:1). Because Paul was writing to Christians, he tended to concentrate on the judgment or assessment that the believers would experience at the Lord’s return. But he also made it plain that the same coming would bring judgment to those who opposed the Christian faith (2 Thes 1:6-10). This is made explicit in Acts 17:31, where Paul told the Athenians that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Eschatology; Judgment; Judgment Seat; Last Days; Rapture; Resurrection; Revelation, Book of; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SECOND COMING OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns, principally by “coming” (which is the regular translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parousia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “presence,” “visit,” “arrival,” “advent,” especially of a royal or distinguished person) but also by “appearing” (as in 2 Tm 4:8; Ti 2:13), “revealing,” or “revelation” (1 Cor 1:7). These different verbs and nouns point to the same event but highlight different aspects of it, especially the manifestation of God’s glory in Christ when he comes. The time of this event is repeatedly referred to as “the Day,” sometimes absolutely (as in Rom 13:12; 1 Cor 3:13; Heb 10:25), more often with a qualification, such as “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16), “the day of the Lord” (1 Thes 5:2; 2 Thes 2:2), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), “the day of Jesus Christ” (Phil 1:6), and “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8). When such expressions are used, there is often some reference to the judgment to be passed at the coming of Christ: his day is “the day of judgment” (1 Jn 4:17) or “the day of wrath” (Rom 2:5). For the people of God, however, it is “the day of redemption” (Eph 4:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheProclamationoftheNewTestament\">The Proclamation of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>That the second coming of Christ was an essential element in the gospel as preached in the apostolic age is clear from many NT writings (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The origin of the Second Coming is found in the teachings of Jesus before his death. Speaking of himself as the Son of Man, Jesus said, “The day when the Son of man is revealed” (Lk 17:30) he will come “in clouds with great power and glory” (Mk 13:26). This language is derived from the OT, especially from Daniel’s vision in which “one like a son of man” is brought “with the clouds of heaven” to receive everlasting dominion from the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:13-14). A cloud or clouds regularly enveloped the divine glory in the OT (as in Ex 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:10-11); their mention in connection with the coming of the Son of Man indicates that, when he comes, the glory of God will be manifested in him. Jesus’ last reference to his second coming came at his trial before the Jewish authorities when, asked by the high priest to say whether or not he was “the Christ, the Son of the Blessed,” he replied, “I am; and you will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mk 14:61-62).<\/p>\n<p>After the Gospels, the rest of the NT affirms the eventuality of Christ’s second coming. The record of Acts begins with the angels’ assurance at the ascension of Christ that “this Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11). The summaries of apostolic addresses that the book contains make repeated references to Jesus as “the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead” (10:42; cf. 17:31).<\/p>\n<p>Writing to his converts in Thessalonica (c. <span>AD<\/span> 51) a few weeks after they first heard and believed the gospel, Paul reminds them how they had “turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come” (1 Thes 1:9-10). Here Jesus’ expected deliverance of his people from end-time judgment is put on the same plane as his historical resurrection; the Christian way of life embraces both serving God and waiting for Christ. This note of waiting for Christ is repeated and amplified several times in this short letter. A few years later Paul uses similar language when writing to his converts in Corinth (cf. Acts 18:1-18): “You are not lacking in any spiritual gift, as you wait for the revealing of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:7). And in what may have been his last letter he speaks of “the crown of righteousness” that the Lord will award him “on that Day, and not only to me,” he adds, “but also to all who have loved his appearing” (2 Tm 4:8). To love his appearing and to wait for him are two different ways of expressing the same attitude.<\/p>\n<p>The writer to the Hebrews encourages his readers with the assurance that in a little while “the coming one shall come and shall not tarry” (Heb 10:37). James says that “the coming of the Lord is at hand” (Jas 5:8). Peter speaks of the time “when the chief Shepherd is manifested” (1 Pt 5:4). The Revelation to John ends with the risen Lord’s promise, “Surely I am coming soon,” and the church’s response, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!” (Rv 22:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecondComingandtheResurrection\">The Second Coming and the Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Thessalonians, written not more than 20 years after the death and resurrection of Christ, his coming again is presented by way of comfort and encouragement to those whose Christian friends had died. Paul had been compelled to leave Thessalonica before he had time to give his converts there as much teaching as they required, and when some of their number died shortly after his departure, their friends wondered if they would suffer some serious disadvantage at the Second Coming, in contrast to those who would still be alive to greet the returning Lord. No, says Paul, “those who have fallen asleep” will suffer no disadvantage. On the contrary, the first thing to happen when “the Lord himself will descend from heaven” is that “the dead in Christ will rise.” Only after that will those who survive until then be caught away to join them and be forever “with the Lord” (1 Thes 4:15-17). Fuller information on the same subject is given in 1 Corinthians, written about five years later. There the resurrection of believers is the full harvest that was inaugurated by the resurrection of Christ: “Christ the first fruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ” (1 Cor 15:23). An additional revelation is imparted: not only will each believer who has died be raised in a “spiritual body” (v 44) but also those who are still alive will be “changed” so as to have bodies suitable for life in resurrection. For dead and living believers alike, Paul proclaimed that “as we have borne the image of the man of dust [i.e., Adam; cf. Gn 2:7], we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven [i.e., the risen Christ]” (1 Cor 15:49). To the same effect, Paul writes (a few years later still) in Philippians 3:20-21 that from heaven “we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body.” A deeper unveiling of what this will involve is made in Romans 8:18-23, where the resurrection of the people of Christ is the catalyst for the liberation and glorious renewal of all creation.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Coming and Judgment<\/h5>\n<p>The association of judgment with the Second Coming arises in Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels. The association is equally plain in the epistles of the NT. Paul, in particular, put the subject on a personal level. He forbade premature judgment of fellow Christians: “Do not pronounce judgment before the time, before the Lord comes” (1 Cor 4:5). The Lord will conduct an investigation that will bring to light the hidden motives of the heart. Paul knew that his own apostolic work would be assessed on “the day of Christ” (Phil 2:16; 1 Thes 2:19). Elsewhere, Paul urges his converts to bear in mind that they, with himself, must appear before the divine tribunal, variously called “the judgment seat of God” (where “each of us shall give account of himself,” Rom 14:10-12) or “the judgment seat of Christ” (where each will “receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body,” 2 Cor 5:10). It seems clear that this judgment is to take place at the second coming of Christ, who will then “judge the living and the dead” (2 Tm 4:1). Because Paul was writing to Christians, he tended to concentrate on the judgment or assessment that the believers would experience at the Lord’s return. But he also made it plain that the same coming would bring judgment to those who opposed the Christian faith (2 Thes 1:6-10). This is made explicit in Acts 17:31, where Paul told the Athenians that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Eschatology; Judgment; Judgment Seat; Last Days; Rapture; Resurrection; Revelation, Book of; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SECOND COMING OF CHRIST* The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation. Terms Used The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns...","summary_en":"SECOND COMING OF CHRIST* The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation. Terms Used The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":18470,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59048,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:9","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","summary_en":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:9","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","summary_en":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:9","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","summary_en":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:9","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:9<\/strong> <em>the Judge is standing at the door!<\/em> The coming of Christ is imminent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","summary_en":"5:9 the Judge is standing at the door! The coming of Christ is imminent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62360,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67781,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89986,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95407,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117612,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123033,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145238,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150659,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":59049,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","summary_en":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","summary_en":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","summary_en":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","summary_en":"5:10 This verse reflects on Matt 5:11 and Luke 6:23 (see study note on Jas 1:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62341,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67719,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89967,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95345,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117593,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122971,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145219,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150597,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":59050,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","summary_en":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86676,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","summary_en":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","summary_en":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141928,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11<\/strong> <em>Job<\/em> was <em>a man of great endurance<\/em> because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","summary_en":"5:11 Job was a man of great endurance because he remained faithful to God throughout his hardships (Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10) despite his complaints (Job 3:1-26; 12:1-3; 16:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62343,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62561,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Understanding Job","title_en":"Understanding Job","content_ro":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","summary_en":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67721,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67798,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67867,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Suffering","title_en":"Christian Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","summary_en":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89969,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90187,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Understanding Job","title_en":"Understanding Job","content_ro":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","summary_en":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95347,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95424,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95493,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Suffering","title_en":"Christian Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","summary_en":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117595,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117813,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Understanding Job","title_en":"Understanding Job","content_ro":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","summary_en":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122973,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123050,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123119,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Suffering","title_en":"Christian Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","summary_en":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145221,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complaints","title_en":"Complaints","content_ro":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complaints<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindicate himself, but God upheld Job’s innocence. In a gracious but firm act of self-revelation, God rebuked Job for his overreaching self-defense and implied criticism of God’s fairness. God shifted Job’s focus away from his troubles and toward God himself (Job 38–41).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture admonishes us to rejoice and give thanks in all situations (Eph 5:20; Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16-18). It also calls us to endure through suffering and to persist in prayer (Jas 5:10-18). If we do want to complain in prayer, we should follow the pattern of the psalms, which lead us past ourselves and back to God (see, e.g., Ps 13). Job’s positive example (Jas 5:11) is not so much in how he responded to his troubles or to his comforters but in how he responded to God (Job 40:3-5; 42:1-6). In the midst of difficult and confusing situations that may precipitate a desire to complain, we can still acknowledge the sovereignty and goodness of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:13-14; Exod 16:2-18; Num 14:27-37; 1 Kgs 19:3-18; Job 3:1-26; 6:1–7:21; Pss 38; 39; 44; 73; Jer 20:14-18; Jon 4:1-11; Matt 27:46; John 6:41-59; 1 Cor 10:1-10; Eph 5:20; Phil 2:14-15; Jas 5:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","summary_en":"Complaints The Bible generally depicts complaining as wrong. For example, God judged the Israelites for grumbling about their hardships in the wilderness (Num 14:27-37). Job complained mightily and earned God’s rebuke for it, yet God ultimately confirmed Job’s righteousness and rejected those who tried to stop him from complaining (Job 42:7-8). Job’s fundamental complaint was that God did not give him a fair hearing to demonstrate his innocence. Job’s friends attacked him for trying to vindic...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145439,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Understanding Job","title_en":"Understanding Job","content_ro":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Understanding Job<\/h3>\n<p>For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Job of talking too much and even of confusing God’s work with the work of Satan. Some contemporary interpretations side with Job’s counselors in blaming Job for his suffering. Still others follow Eliphaz (5:17-27) and Elihu (33:15-33; 36:7-17) in arguing that Job’s suffering was God’s loving and sanctifying chastisement. Even the faithful are not exempt from such discipline (Heb 12:6-12; see Prov 3:11-12), but this explanation flies in the face of the rationale given in the book’s opening verses.<\/p>\n<p>Job suffered because God wanted to prove Job’s integrity to Satan. God’s own judgment of Job’s life was positive from start to finish (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 42:7). This perspective carries through to the New Testament, where Job is an example of endurance that we should imitate (Jas 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s reactions are normal. He does not stand like a rock in reverent stoicism as though he were unaffected by his trials. Neither does he trumpet heroic defiance of his troubles, as though they could never get him down. He reacts in a natural human way. Job rages, protests, moans, and vacillates between confidence and despair, but he never gives up. He does not curse God, and he does not make a false confession of guilt in the hope that God will then let up on him. Although Job cannot understand his situation, he knows that his answer will be found in God (Job 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 5:17-18; 19:25-27; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; 38:2; 40:8; 42:7; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:7, 10; Jas 5:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","summary_en":"Understanding Job For as long as people have read Job’s story, they have struggled with the tension between the positive and negative aspects of Job’s character. The book’s approval of Job in the opening prologue is unequivocal (1:1, 8; 2:3), yet we later hear God interrogate Job: “Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorant words?” (38:2). “Will you discredit my justice and condemn me just to prove you are right?” (40:8). God’s questions have led various interpreters to accuse Jo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150599,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Endurance","title_en":"Endurance","content_ro":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Endurance<\/h3>\n<p>As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order to persevere in the face of hardship while maintaining their commitment to Christ and their witness to others (see 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 4:1). Through endurance, believers experience growth in their character and develop spiritual maturity (Rom 5:3-4; Jas 1:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Hebrews was written to a group of believers who had experienced a number of difficulties in the past including harassment, loss of property, and imprisonment (Heb 10:32-34). At the time of writing, they were experiencing similar circumstances. Thus they needed to “hold firmly” to what they believed “without wavering” (4:14; 10:23) and to endure while anticipating the fulfillment of God’s promises (6:12; 10:36). Like runners in a race, they needed to stay on the path of obedience (12:1). And like true children of a loving father, they were to receive the Lord’s discipline in order to grow in holiness (12:5-13).<\/p>\n<p>All believers can look to the great examples of endurance in Scripture, including Job and the prophets (Heb 11:35-40; Jas 5:10-11). Christ, our ultimate model of endurance, “endured the cross,” knowing the “joy awaiting him” (12:1-3). Our endurance is fueled by that same hope for the future.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rom 5:3-4; 1 Cor 4:12; 2 Thes 1:4; Heb 6:12; 12:1-10; Jas 1:2-4; 5:11; 1 Pet 2:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","summary_en":"Endurance As Jesus was approaching his suffering and death, he informed his followers that they, too, would experience immense hardship (see Matt 24:9). In that context, he underlines the role of endurance: “The one who endures to the end will be saved” (Matt 24:13). Sure enough, many of the writings of the New Testament were directed toward believers who were experiencing suffering for their faith in Christ (see, e.g., 2 Thes 1:4; 1 Pet 4:12-19). These believers needed encouragement in order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150676,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150745,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Suffering","title_en":"Christian Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Suffering<\/h3>\n<p>We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence.<\/p>\n<p>God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoying the glory that he has already won.<\/p>\n<p>First Peter focuses heavily on Christian suffering, especially unjust persecution at the hands of people hostile to the faith. The several themes about suffering that are woven throughout the letter find their climactic expression in 4:12-19.<\/p>\n<p>We need to commit ourselves to doing what is right when we face suffering (4:19). Our difficulties can always provide an excuse for sinning, but when difficulties come our way, we must live exemplary lives, characterized by love for others. Our loving response to enemies in the midst of trials can be a powerful opportunity to share our faith. By treating our persecutors with love and kindness, we can make our faith respectable and even attractive to them.<\/p>\n<p>We need to remember in our trials that God is both sovereign and faithful (4:19). He controls all the circumstances of life, and we don’t need to fear that a trial will come our way apart from God’s oversight or will.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 48:10; 52:13–53:12; 63:7-9; Mark 10:35-40; Acts 5:41; 9:16; 14:22; Rom 8:17-23; 2 Cor 1:5-7; 4:10; 12:10; Phil 1:29; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 2:14; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 2:9-10; 5:8; 13:12; Jas 5:11-13; 1 Pet 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","summary_en":"Christian Suffering We should not be surprised when suffering comes (1 Pet 4:12). Christians who live a countercultural lifestyle in obedience to God should expect the culture to respond with hostility. We should expect mockery, discrimination, trumped-up charges, and even violence. God has a purpose for us in suffering: It brings us into fellowship with Christ, who suffered before he was glorified (4:13; see also Rom 8:17). By suffering in fellowship with Christ, we can be confident of enjoy...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":7692,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Second Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"Second Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repetition of thought in 7:2 from 6:13 indicates that Paul is aware that he has digressed from his topic and is repeating a phrase to bring his readers back to the subject.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>After writing both the “previous letter” (1 Cor 5:9) and 1 Corinthians from Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 55, Paul continued to work there. Sometime during the next year a crisis arose in Corinth. Paul made a quick trip across the Aegean Sea, but he could not resolve the crisis, and due to the personal opposition of a leader in the church (likely an interloper bearing letters of recommendation from Jerusalem), he had to withdraw (2 Cor 2:1, 5). Returning to Ephesus from this “painful visit,” Paul dispatched Titus with a blistering “letter of tears,” his third letter to that church (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8, 12), which led to the excommunication of the leader and the repentance of the church. This letter has been lost. Meanwhile a situation erupted in Ephesus during which death (probably execution) seemed so certain that Paul despaired of life (see Acts 19:23-41; cf. Rom 16:4; 2 Cor 1:8-9). Paul was not killed, but his escape seemed miraculous.<\/p>\n<p>Leaving Ephesus in early <span>AD<\/span> 56, Paul traveled north to Troas seeking Titus and news of Corinth. Unable to endure without news, he abandoned a promising mission in Troas and sailed to Philippi. There he met Titus, who explained the change of heart in Corinth. Second Corinthians 1–9 responds to this situation, with chapters 8–9 preparing the Corinthians for an upcoming visit. Later Paul received further news from Corinth that renewed opposition to him was present. In response he penned the self-defense found in 2 Corinthians 10–13. Paul followed up the letter with a visit later in the year (Acts 20:2-3). We do not know the response to 2 Corinthians or the outcome of his final visit, but later the troubled history of the Corinthian church continued, with another Christian leader needing to write a letter at the end of the century (Epistle of Clement).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthian house churches always had great diversity. While those who liked Apollos undoubtedly despised Paul’s crude style, others who preferred Peter likely appealed beyond Paul to the more genuine “original” apostles in Jerusalem with their Jewish customs (1 Cor 1). Traveling teachers with letters of commendation from these apostles easily drew a following when they came to Corinth and undermined Paul’s authority and even his character. Furthermore, because of this outside influence, the collection for the poor in Jerusalem that Paul had initiated (16:1-4) was left in abeyance, both because it was connected to Paul and because the teachers themselves were taking money from the church. Paul writes to reaffirm his love and to repair the damage caused by the interloper.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the first section of the letter, Paul has two main purposes. The first is to cement his restored relationship with Corinth, explaining situations, forgiving those who opposed him, and reflecting on the nature of ministry. For Paul, ministry meant both intense suffering and comfort. Physical and emotional suffering came from the situations and people he worked with, but his knowledge of future reward and his experience of the power of God working in him brought profound joy and comfort. Due to his own recent brush with death, Paul also reflects on what happens at death. His expectation is to receive a resurrection body and be in the presence of Jesus at death.<\/p>\n<p>The second purpose of this section is to get the collection for Jerusalem on track again. In this context he gives major teaching on giving and Christian economics: Christians are to follow Christ in giving freely; economic equality is the principle governing who gives to whom.<\/p>\n<p>The second section of the letter is an impassioned self-defense, refuting the interloper’s claims to superiority. Neither oratory nor pedigree counts in Christian ministry, but only the call of God.<\/p>\n<p>In both sections one observes Paul’s deep desire for the unity of the church, both unity within the local community and unity with leaders appointed by God, such as Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>A standard greeting (2 Cor 1:1-2) comes before Paul’s usual thanksgiving (vv 3-7). The topic of the thanksgiving—comfort in the midst of suffering—is the topic of chapters 1–7. Paul knows what it is to suffer, but it is in suffering that he has experienced God’s comfort, which he passes on to the Corinthians.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Explanation, 1:8–2:13<\/h5>\n<p>Paul informs them of the danger he had suffered in Ephesus, one so great that he did not believe he would survive. His eventual survival seemed like a virtual resurrection, reinforcing his conviction that God, not human strength, is the only Christian refuge (1:8-11). In that and in all situations, Paul’s one boast is that of a clear conscience before God (vv 12-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had told them of plans for a double visit (cf. 1 Cor 16:5-6), but except for his brief “painful visit,” he had not fulfilled his plan (2 Cor 1:15–2:4). He defends himself from charges of either not planning in the Spirit or hypocritical vacillation. He was indeed as good as his word (cf. Jas 5:12), for his life reflected God’s fulfilled promise in Jesus, but he had changed plans so as not to repeat the “painful visit” of the previous year. It was love, not fickleness, that motivated the delayed visit.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had responded to Paul’s “letter of tears” by excommunicating the person who had opposed Paul (not the same person as in 1 Cor 5). Since the person became repentant, Paul called for his restoration to the community, freely and graciously forgiving the man who had hurt him. Excommunication is for the unrepentant; its purpose is complete once the person repents (2 Cor 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul then recounted his journey from Ephesus to Philippi, when he sought news of the response to the “letter of tears” (2:12-13). After telling how he left an opportunity to minister in Troas to go to find Titus in Philippi, he breaks the narrative with a long digression.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of Apostolic Ministry, 2:14–7:4<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic ministry in which Paul took part is like the ministry of Jesus, one of suffering and glory. Even in suffering there is triumph in Christ, for Christians share Christ’s triumph. Yet just like the perfumes of a Roman triumph were joy to the victors but meant death for prisoners on their way to execution, so Jesus’ triumph is life to the believer and death to the unbeliever (2:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>This triumph may have sounded like a boast, but Paul is not engaging in self-exaltation. Indeed, he has no need of the letters of commendation that the interloper in Corinth carried from Jerusalem, for the Corinthians are themselves the proof of his ministry (3:1-3). His boast is not in himself but in the new covenant in the Spirit, which unlike the old covenant is not fading (here Paul follows one Jewish interpretation of Ex 34:29-35, that Moses put the veil over his face so the people would not see the glory fade), nor does it veil the presence of God. The new covenant is permanent; it reveals God directly in the Spirit. There is no deceit or hiddenness, for the message is not about Paul but about Jesus, who is light itself (2 Cor 3:4–4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul the messenger, however, is simply the cheap, breakable pot that contains the priceless treasure, revealing by way of contrast that the only power in the gospel is God’s power. This contrast of weakness and power is seen in the sufferings of the apostle, a type of living death modeled after the sufferings of Jesus, out of which the life of Jesus flows to others (4:7-15).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, despite intense suffering, Paul has courage, for he looks beyond this life to the rewards of the coming life. His whole motivation is one of faith, not sight, for he lives already for unseen realities (4:16-18). When he dies, Paul expects to receive an eternal resurrection body. His hope is not of becoming a disembodied soul (“naked”) but of passing immediately into a glorified bodily life, already guaranteed by the presence of the Spirit. This hope was likely the fruit of his near brush with death in Ephesus, when he must have meditated and prayed about what would come at death (5:1-5). Because this future includes Christ’s judgment, Paul wanted to make every effort to live in the light of that judgment, which he already saw by faith (vv 6-10).<\/p>\n<p>Far from trying to commend or exalt himself, Paul was simply presenting what he was—a person filled with the love of Christ and convinced that all should live not for themselves but for Christ (5:11-15). No one should be valued from a merely human point of view, not Paul, nor even Christ (for Paul before his conversion had a human opinion of Christ that his conversion had radically changed); everyone should be valued from the point of view of the new creation. Paul’s job was simply to announce the reconciliation of the new creation, which God has already effected on his side and which only awaits a person’s ratification on the human side (5:16-20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul, then, was a coworker with God, announcing salvation, using every means consistent with God’s character to proclaim the message, and suffering everything imaginable to demonstrate the extent of God’s love (6:1-10). Therefore, Paul had nothing against the Corinthians. If there was any blockage in their relationship with him, it must be on their side (6:11-13).<\/p>\n<h5>Digression on Purity, 6:14–7:1<\/h5>\n<p>Perhaps suspecting that the real block in the relationship was their love of the world, or that the Corinthians might not be totally over the problems mentioned in 1 Corinthians, Paul digressed into a discussion about the purity and sanctification of believers. There are two groups, light and darkness, Christ and the devil, believers and unbelievers. Therefore, as Exodus 25:8, Leviticus 26:11-12, Isaiah 52:11, Ezekiel 37:27, and Hosea 1:10 show (phrases from these passages flow into each other in a style of chain quotation familiar to Jews), Christians should not be closely bound to unbelievers in marriage or in business, for it will affect their moral purity.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to the Nature of the Apostolic Ministry, 7:2-4<\/h5>\n<p>Picking up from 6:13, Paul points out that the Corinthians have nothing substantial against him. He is not criticizing but simply appealing to them in love; even now he is prepared to die for them.<\/p>\n<h5>Explanation Concluded, 7:5-16<\/h5>\n<p>Having concluded his digression, Paul now returns to his journey, which he left in 2:13. When he met Titus, he received good news about Corinth. He was relieved that his “letter of tears” had been effective, not in simply making them sorry but in bringing them to true repentance that yielded zeal, moral purity, and joy. Furthermore, their behavior toward Titus had been so impressive that Titus’s enthusiastic report of his own impressions had further cheered Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>Collection for Jerusalem, 8:1–9:15<\/h5>\n<p>In the context of restored relationships Paul turns to the sensitive topic of the collection for the church in Jerusalem, which had been impoverished through famines in Judea in the 40s. This collection was both an act of charity (cf. Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:10) and a symbolic act of unity and fellowship between the Gentile and Jewish branches of the church.<\/p>\n<p>The impoverished and suffering church in Macedonia (Philippi) had given eagerly. Therefore, Titus was coming back to help the Corinthians complete what they had begun the previous year (and probably dropped during the controversy with Paul, 2 Cor 8:1-7). The principles of the collection are (1) the Corinthians should follow the example of Jesus, who became poor for them; (2) they should give freely what they can without regretting that they cannot give more, for God values the eagerness to give expressed in action, not the net amount of the gift; and (3) there should be an economic equality among sections of the church, no one section being enriched at the expense of another (cf. Ex 16:18). This economic equality extends to the relationship between two churches a continent apart (2 Cor 8:8-15).<\/p>\n<p>Titus and two absolutely trustworthy men appointed by the churches for this work will come to supervise the final gathering—Paul would have nothing to do with the money personally—for it is important that not only God but the world be able to see the honesty and integrity of the way the church handles money (8:16-24).<\/p>\n<p>In this section Paul points out that he does not need to argue the reasons for this collection; they were aware of them when they began to gather money the year before. This letter is not an argument for the collection but an encouragement to finish the work, so that when Paul arrives with representatives of other churches carrying their contributions, the Corinthians would not be embarrassed by their relatively wealthy churches not being ready or able to give generously, despite Paul’s boasts about their previous eagerness. In saying this, Paul shows himself diplomatic and insightful in motivating human behavior; he makes the best assumptions possible about the present situation (9:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Paul would not want the Corinthians giving out of guilt, although he, like Jesus (Mt 6:19-20), pointed out that the only real value of money is in giving it to help others. Rather, he wanted them so convinced of God’s generosity and ability to provide that they give freely and joyfully. God wanted to enrich them so they could give more. The giving would result in thanksgiving to God by the recipients, who would also pray for those who gave the gift, thereby binding the church together. A closing reminder of the extent of God’s own giving finishes the section (2 Cor 9:6-15).<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Self-Defense, 10:1–13:14<\/h5>\n<p>There is an abrupt change in tone between 9:15 and 10:1. Now, instead of the tone of conciliation found in 1:1–7:16, there is argument and defense, even threat. Paul’s apostleship has been attacked, and he will defend it with vigor.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was indeed a humble person who preferred not to use his authority. Yet when forced, he had something more than authority; he had spiritual power, capable of destroying opposing arguments and bending all to obedience to Jesus. He would use that power in Corinth if he must, though up to that time he had been gentle and had shown this side of his ministry only in letters (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents talked of their qualifications and compared themselves favorably with other ministers. Paul would not enter into this game of comparisons. God had set the sphere of his labors, which was the area in which he founded churches. He was the one who pioneered the church in Corinth, so it is his sphere of ministry, not the interloper’s (and such like him). They boasted in having reaped the benefits of his ministry; Paul could point to an original ministry given by God, for it is God’s commendation in the end that counts (10:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Corinthian rebellion is serious enough to force him into self-defense, ridiculous as such an exercise is. He was shocked by how readily they turned away to every novel doctrine that came along. This tendency strikes fear in Paul’s heart (11:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had been criticized for refusing financial support from Corinth (even though he accepted gifts from other churches; cf. 1 Cor 9). He would continue to refuse such support, for he wanted to undermine the claims of the interloper. If the interloper was really serving God alone, let him work on the same basis as Paul! But since the interloper was false at heart, serving Satan and not God, he sought money from the church. Paul was astonished that in the Corinthians’ vaunted wisdom they did not see through this hypocrisy, yet he hoped that even if he must play the fool in making a self-defense, they would at least accept a fool like Paul. The irony is that his very tender care and concern for the church, his gentleness, was being used against him as a supposed “weakness.” Paul, the opponent argued, knew he was false, so therefore did not dare take money from the Corinthians (11:7-21).<\/p>\n<p>Interlopers claimed to come with authority from Jerusalem. They had letters from the apostles; it is unlikely, however, that the apostles would have approved of their activities. Still, they were Jews with respectable authority behind them. Paul felt compelled to state his own credentials. If they were Jews, he was just as pure a Jew. If they served Christ, could their work and sufferings match his? The list of sufferings both gives historical information not found in Acts and points to tireless labor, including days of fasting (“gone without food”) and nights spent in prayer (“gone without sleep”) (11:21-29).<\/p>\n<p>But this boasting was repulsive to Paul, so he isolated one particular suffering—his escape from Damascus, when he had to hide and slip out of the city in a basket. The story at once shows his effectiveness as an evangelist (in that he was a target of persecution) and shames him, for he could not defend himself and had to slip away under cover of darkness. Yet that weakness was indeed his glory (11:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents boasted in revelations from God. Paul knew that this boasting was senseless; however, if he must, he would tell them of a revelation superior to theirs, a time when he actually saw the inside of heaven (he is not sure whether it was a vision or an actual bodily experience). This probably happened about <span>AD<\/span> 42, while Paul was in Tarsus, before Barnabas came for him (Acts 9:30; 11:25). Paul disliked telling about this, for God’s power is more easily seen in his weakness. In fact, Paul’s opponents were an affliction of Satan that God allowed to keep Paul humble and to demonstrate his power in Paul’s weakness. (The image of a “thorn in my flesh” is one of enemies—Nm 33:55; Jos 23:13; Paul also describes what he means more clearly in 2 Cor 12:10). If vulnerability shows God’s power, Paul willingly accepts the weakness (12:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul felt ashamed that he had to boast. The opponents boasted in coming from the Jerusalem “superapostles.” Paul pointed out that he was their equal, although both are nothing. God had set his mark upon Paul’s work. With biting irony he asks forgiveness for not having taken money from the Corinthians (12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul would come a third time, and he would keep to the same policy of not taking any support from them but giving himself freely to them, just as Jesus had done on earth. Not only he, but all his envoys, kept to the same policy. No one could accuse him of deceit or inconsistency (12:14-18). However, he feared coming to them, for he knew that the community had not just rebelled against him but was also in internal disorder. This disunity and immorality would humble and pain Paul (12:19–13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the Corinthians had better examine themselves. Were they really following Jesus or not? If so, they should see that Paul was also following Jesus. Yet Paul’s concern was not for his own position—he was content to be rejected (“weak”)—but for their following the truth. He hoped for their repentance, not to protect himself, but so that he need not be severe when he came (13:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Probably taking the pen from the scribe at this point, Paul closes with a final appeal to repent and come to unity as a church. Brief greetings from the church in Macedonia and a formal blessing closes his correspondence with the Corinthians (vv 11-13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, First Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repetition of thought in 7:2 from 6:13 indicates that Paul is aware that he has digressed from his topic and is repeating a phrase to bring his readers back to the subject.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>After writing both the “previous letter” (1 Cor 5:9) and 1 Corinthians from Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 55, Paul continued to work there. Sometime during the next year a crisis arose in Corinth. Paul made a quick trip across the Aegean Sea, but he could not resolve the crisis, and due to the personal opposition of a leader in the church (likely an interloper bearing letters of recommendation from Jerusalem), he had to withdraw (2 Cor 2:1, 5). Returning to Ephesus from this “painful visit,” Paul dispatched Titus with a blistering “letter of tears,” his third letter to that church (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8, 12), which led to the excommunication of the leader and the repentance of the church. This letter has been lost. Meanwhile a situation erupted in Ephesus during which death (probably execution) seemed so certain that Paul despaired of life (see Acts 19:23-41; cf. Rom 16:4; 2 Cor 1:8-9). Paul was not killed, but his escape seemed miraculous.<\/p>\n<p>Leaving Ephesus in early <span>AD<\/span> 56, Paul traveled north to Troas seeking Titus and news of Corinth. Unable to endure without news, he abandoned a promising mission in Troas and sailed to Philippi. There he met Titus, who explained the change of heart in Corinth. Second Corinthians 1–9 responds to this situation, with chapters 8–9 preparing the Corinthians for an upcoming visit. Later Paul received further news from Corinth that renewed opposition to him was present. In response he penned the self-defense found in 2 Corinthians 10–13. Paul followed up the letter with a visit later in the year (Acts 20:2-3). We do not know the response to 2 Corinthians or the outcome of his final visit, but later the troubled history of the Corinthian church continued, with another Christian leader needing to write a letter at the end of the century (Epistle of Clement).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthian house churches always had great diversity. While those who liked Apollos undoubtedly despised Paul’s crude style, others who preferred Peter likely appealed beyond Paul to the more genuine “original” apostles in Jerusalem with their Jewish customs (1 Cor 1). Traveling teachers with letters of commendation from these apostles easily drew a following when they came to Corinth and undermined Paul’s authority and even his character. Furthermore, because of this outside influence, the collection for the poor in Jerusalem that Paul had initiated (16:1-4) was left in abeyance, both because it was connected to Paul and because the teachers themselves were taking money from the church. Paul writes to reaffirm his love and to repair the damage caused by the interloper.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the first section of the letter, Paul has two main purposes. The first is to cement his restored relationship with Corinth, explaining situations, forgiving those who opposed him, and reflecting on the nature of ministry. For Paul, ministry meant both intense suffering and comfort. Physical and emotional suffering came from the situations and people he worked with, but his knowledge of future reward and his experience of the power of God working in him brought profound joy and comfort. Due to his own recent brush with death, Paul also reflects on what happens at death. His expectation is to receive a resurrection body and be in the presence of Jesus at death.<\/p>\n<p>The second purpose of this section is to get the collection for Jerusalem on track again. In this context he gives major teaching on giving and Christian economics: Christians are to follow Christ in giving freely; economic equality is the principle governing who gives to whom.<\/p>\n<p>The second section of the letter is an impassioned self-defense, refuting the interloper’s claims to superiority. Neither oratory nor pedigree counts in Christian ministry, but only the call of God.<\/p>\n<p>In both sections one observes Paul’s deep desire for the unity of the church, both unity within the local community and unity with leaders appointed by God, such as Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>A standard greeting (2 Cor 1:1-2) comes before Paul’s usual thanksgiving (vv 3-7). The topic of the thanksgiving—comfort in the midst of suffering—is the topic of chapters 1–7. Paul knows what it is to suffer, but it is in suffering that he has experienced God’s comfort, which he passes on to the Corinthians.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Explanation, 1:8–2:13<\/h5>\n<p>Paul informs them of the danger he had suffered in Ephesus, one so great that he did not believe he would survive. His eventual survival seemed like a virtual resurrection, reinforcing his conviction that God, not human strength, is the only Christian refuge (1:8-11). In that and in all situations, Paul’s one boast is that of a clear conscience before God (vv 12-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had told them of plans for a double visit (cf. 1 Cor 16:5-6), but except for his brief “painful visit,” he had not fulfilled his plan (2 Cor 1:15–2:4). He defends himself from charges of either not planning in the Spirit or hypocritical vacillation. He was indeed as good as his word (cf. Jas 5:12), for his life reflected God’s fulfilled promise in Jesus, but he had changed plans so as not to repeat the “painful visit” of the previous year. It was love, not fickleness, that motivated the delayed visit.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had responded to Paul’s “letter of tears” by excommunicating the person who had opposed Paul (not the same person as in 1 Cor 5). Since the person became repentant, Paul called for his restoration to the community, freely and graciously forgiving the man who had hurt him. Excommunication is for the unrepentant; its purpose is complete once the person repents (2 Cor 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul then recounted his journey from Ephesus to Philippi, when he sought news of the response to the “letter of tears” (2:12-13). After telling how he left an opportunity to minister in Troas to go to find Titus in Philippi, he breaks the narrative with a long digression.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of Apostolic Ministry, 2:14–7:4<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic ministry in which Paul took part is like the ministry of Jesus, one of suffering and glory. Even in suffering there is triumph in Christ, for Christians share Christ’s triumph. Yet just like the perfumes of a Roman triumph were joy to the victors but meant death for prisoners on their way to execution, so Jesus’ triumph is life to the believer and death to the unbeliever (2:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>This triumph may have sounded like a boast, but Paul is not engaging in self-exaltation. Indeed, he has no need of the letters of commendation that the interloper in Corinth carried from Jerusalem, for the Corinthians are themselves the proof of his ministry (3:1-3). His boast is not in himself but in the new covenant in the Spirit, which unlike the old covenant is not fading (here Paul follows one Jewish interpretation of Ex 34:29-35, that Moses put the veil over his face so the people would not see the glory fade), nor does it veil the presence of God. The new covenant is permanent; it reveals God directly in the Spirit. There is no deceit or hiddenness, for the message is not about Paul but about Jesus, who is light itself (2 Cor 3:4–4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul the messenger, however, is simply the cheap, breakable pot that contains the priceless treasure, revealing by way of contrast that the only power in the gospel is God’s power. This contrast of weakness and power is seen in the sufferings of the apostle, a type of living death modeled after the sufferings of Jesus, out of which the life of Jesus flows to others (4:7-15).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, despite intense suffering, Paul has courage, for he looks beyond this life to the rewards of the coming life. His whole motivation is one of faith, not sight, for he lives already for unseen realities (4:16-18). When he dies, Paul expects to receive an eternal resurrection body. His hope is not of becoming a disembodied soul (“naked”) but of passing immediately into a glorified bodily life, already guaranteed by the presence of the Spirit. This hope was likely the fruit of his near brush with death in Ephesus, when he must have meditated and prayed about what would come at death (5:1-5). Because this future includes Christ’s judgment, Paul wanted to make every effort to live in the light of that judgment, which he already saw by faith (vv 6-10).<\/p>\n<p>Far from trying to commend or exalt himself, Paul was simply presenting what he was—a person filled with the love of Christ and convinced that all should live not for themselves but for Christ (5:11-15). No one should be valued from a merely human point of view, not Paul, nor even Christ (for Paul before his conversion had a human opinion of Christ that his conversion had radically changed); everyone should be valued from the point of view of the new creation. Paul’s job was simply to announce the reconciliation of the new creation, which God has already effected on his side and which only awaits a person’s ratification on the human side (5:16-20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul, then, was a coworker with God, announcing salvation, using every means consistent with God’s character to proclaim the message, and suffering everything imaginable to demonstrate the extent of God’s love (6:1-10). Therefore, Paul had nothing against the Corinthians. If there was any blockage in their relationship with him, it must be on their side (6:11-13).<\/p>\n<h5>Digression on Purity, 6:14–7:1<\/h5>\n<p>Perhaps suspecting that the real block in the relationship was their love of the world, or that the Corinthians might not be totally over the problems mentioned in 1 Corinthians, Paul digressed into a discussion about the purity and sanctification of believers. There are two groups, light and darkness, Christ and the devil, believers and unbelievers. Therefore, as Exodus 25:8, Leviticus 26:11-12, Isaiah 52:11, Ezekiel 37:27, and Hosea 1:10 show (phrases from these passages flow into each other in a style of chain quotation familiar to Jews), Christians should not be closely bound to unbelievers in marriage or in business, for it will affect their moral purity.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to the Nature of the Apostolic Ministry, 7:2-4<\/h5>\n<p>Picking up from 6:13, Paul points out that the Corinthians have nothing substantial against him. He is not criticizing but simply appealing to them in love; even now he is prepared to die for them.<\/p>\n<h5>Explanation Concluded, 7:5-16<\/h5>\n<p>Having concluded his digression, Paul now returns to his journey, which he left in 2:13. When he met Titus, he received good news about Corinth. He was relieved that his “letter of tears” had been effective, not in simply making them sorry but in bringing them to true repentance that yielded zeal, moral purity, and joy. Furthermore, their behavior toward Titus had been so impressive that Titus’s enthusiastic report of his own impressions had further cheered Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>Collection for Jerusalem, 8:1–9:15<\/h5>\n<p>In the context of restored relationships Paul turns to the sensitive topic of the collection for the church in Jerusalem, which had been impoverished through famines in Judea in the 40s. This collection was both an act of charity (cf. Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:10) and a symbolic act of unity and fellowship between the Gentile and Jewish branches of the church.<\/p>\n<p>The impoverished and suffering church in Macedonia (Philippi) had given eagerly. Therefore, Titus was coming back to help the Corinthians complete what they had begun the previous year (and probably dropped during the controversy with Paul, 2 Cor 8:1-7). The principles of the collection are (1) the Corinthians should follow the example of Jesus, who became poor for them; (2) they should give freely what they can without regretting that they cannot give more, for God values the eagerness to give expressed in action, not the net amount of the gift; and (3) there should be an economic equality among sections of the church, no one section being enriched at the expense of another (cf. Ex 16:18). This economic equality extends to the relationship between two churches a continent apart (2 Cor 8:8-15).<\/p>\n<p>Titus and two absolutely trustworthy men appointed by the churches for this work will come to supervise the final gathering—Paul would have nothing to do with the money personally—for it is important that not only God but the world be able to see the honesty and integrity of the way the church handles money (8:16-24).<\/p>\n<p>In this section Paul points out that he does not need to argue the reasons for this collection; they were aware of them when they began to gather money the year before. This letter is not an argument for the collection but an encouragement to finish the work, so that when Paul arrives with representatives of other churches carrying their contributions, the Corinthians would not be embarrassed by their relatively wealthy churches not being ready or able to give generously, despite Paul’s boasts about their previous eagerness. In saying this, Paul shows himself diplomatic and insightful in motivating human behavior; he makes the best assumptions possible about the present situation (9:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Paul would not want the Corinthians giving out of guilt, although he, like Jesus (Mt 6:19-20), pointed out that the only real value of money is in giving it to help others. Rather, he wanted them so convinced of God’s generosity and ability to provide that they give freely and joyfully. God wanted to enrich them so they could give more. The giving would result in thanksgiving to God by the recipients, who would also pray for those who gave the gift, thereby binding the church together. A closing reminder of the extent of God’s own giving finishes the section (2 Cor 9:6-15).<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Self-Defense, 10:1–13:14<\/h5>\n<p>There is an abrupt change in tone between 9:15 and 10:1. Now, instead of the tone of conciliation found in 1:1–7:16, there is argument and defense, even threat. Paul’s apostleship has been attacked, and he will defend it with vigor.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was indeed a humble person who preferred not to use his authority. Yet when forced, he had something more than authority; he had spiritual power, capable of destroying opposing arguments and bending all to obedience to Jesus. He would use that power in Corinth if he must, though up to that time he had been gentle and had shown this side of his ministry only in letters (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents talked of their qualifications and compared themselves favorably with other ministers. Paul would not enter into this game of comparisons. God had set the sphere of his labors, which was the area in which he founded churches. He was the one who pioneered the church in Corinth, so it is his sphere of ministry, not the interloper’s (and such like him). They boasted in having reaped the benefits of his ministry; Paul could point to an original ministry given by God, for it is God’s commendation in the end that counts (10:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Corinthian rebellion is serious enough to force him into self-defense, ridiculous as such an exercise is. He was shocked by how readily they turned away to every novel doctrine that came along. This tendency strikes fear in Paul’s heart (11:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had been criticized for refusing financial support from Corinth (even though he accepted gifts from other churches; cf. 1 Cor 9). He would continue to refuse such support, for he wanted to undermine the claims of the interloper. If the interloper was really serving God alone, let him work on the same basis as Paul! But since the interloper was false at heart, serving Satan and not God, he sought money from the church. Paul was astonished that in the Corinthians’ vaunted wisdom they did not see through this hypocrisy, yet he hoped that even if he must play the fool in making a self-defense, they would at least accept a fool like Paul. The irony is that his very tender care and concern for the church, his gentleness, was being used against him as a supposed “weakness.” Paul, the opponent argued, knew he was false, so therefore did not dare take money from the Corinthians (11:7-21).<\/p>\n<p>Interlopers claimed to come with authority from Jerusalem. They had letters from the apostles; it is unlikely, however, that the apostles would have approved of their activities. Still, they were Jews with respectable authority behind them. Paul felt compelled to state his own credentials. If they were Jews, he was just as pure a Jew. If they served Christ, could their work and sufferings match his? The list of sufferings both gives historical information not found in Acts and points to tireless labor, including days of fasting (“gone without food”) and nights spent in prayer (“gone without sleep”) (11:21-29).<\/p>\n<p>But this boasting was repulsive to Paul, so he isolated one particular suffering—his escape from Damascus, when he had to hide and slip out of the city in a basket. The story at once shows his effectiveness as an evangelist (in that he was a target of persecution) and shames him, for he could not defend himself and had to slip away under cover of darkness. Yet that weakness was indeed his glory (11:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents boasted in revelations from God. Paul knew that this boasting was senseless; however, if he must, he would tell them of a revelation superior to theirs, a time when he actually saw the inside of heaven (he is not sure whether it was a vision or an actual bodily experience). This probably happened about <span>AD<\/span> 42, while Paul was in Tarsus, before Barnabas came for him (Acts 9:30; 11:25). Paul disliked telling about this, for God’s power is more easily seen in his weakness. In fact, Paul’s opponents were an affliction of Satan that God allowed to keep Paul humble and to demonstrate his power in Paul’s weakness. (The image of a “thorn in my flesh” is one of enemies—Nm 33:55; Jos 23:13; Paul also describes what he means more clearly in 2 Cor 12:10). If vulnerability shows God’s power, Paul willingly accepts the weakness (12:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul felt ashamed that he had to boast. The opponents boasted in coming from the Jerusalem “superapostles.” Paul pointed out that he was their equal, although both are nothing. God had set his mark upon Paul’s work. With biting irony he asks forgiveness for not having taken money from the Corinthians (12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul would come a third time, and he would keep to the same policy of not taking any support from them but giving himself freely to them, just as Jesus had done on earth. Not only he, but all his envoys, kept to the same policy. No one could accuse him of deceit or inconsistency (12:14-18). However, he feared coming to them, for he knew that the community had not just rebelled against him but was also in internal disorder. This disunity and immorality would humble and pain Paul (12:19–13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the Corinthians had better examine themselves. Were they really following Jesus or not? If so, they should see that Paul was also following Jesus. Yet Paul’s concern was not for his own position—he was content to be rejected (“weak”)—but for their following the truth. He hoped for their repentance, not to protect himself, but so that he need not be severe when he came (13:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Probably taking the pen from the scribe at this point, Paul closes with a final appeal to repent and come to unity as a church. Brief greetings from the church in Macedonia and a formal blessing closes his correspondence with the Corinthians (vv 11-13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, First Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repet...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repet...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59051,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","summary_en":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86677,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","summary_en":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","summary_en":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> <em>never take an oath:<\/em> Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore <em>by heaven or earth<\/em> they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt 23:16-22). Peter used an oath deceitfully (Matt 26:71-73), but Paul used an oath to confirm his assertions (Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), which suggests that the prohibition of oaths is not absolute.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","summary_en":"5:12 never take an oath: Because the churches were having such severe verbal conflicts (4:1-3, 11-12), James calls upon them to avoid the pitfalls of deceitful oaths by not using any oaths at all (Matt 5:33-37). To swear an oath in the name of the Lord was to call upon him to enforce the oath (Gen 31:53; 1 Kgs 8:31-32). When people swore by heaven or earth they were either feigning reverence while avoiding the use of the divine name, or they were being deceitful with clever verbiage (see Matt...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61114,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88740,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116366,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143992,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":18478,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67796,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95422,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123048,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150674,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":2190,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anoint","title_en":"Anoint","content_ro":"<h3>ANOINT<\/h3>\n<p>To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated officers of their national community by pouring special oil on the head of the person designated for office. The same practice was used to set objects apart for special divine use.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture supplies few details of the ceremonial anointings of official things and persons. Jacob simply poured oil on a rock with an accompanying pronouncement. When anointing Israel’s first king, the prophet-judge Samuel took Saul aside for instruction (1 Sm 9:25-27), then “took a vial of oil and poured it on his head, and kissed him and said, ‘Has not the Lord anointed you to be prince over his people Israel’” (1 Sm 10:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). For anointing the tabernacle and its priests, a special oil was compounded and used only for that sacred purpose. Skilled perfume makers blended the choicest spices (myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cane, cassia) in olive oil (Ex 30:22-25). The Lord specified that everything set apart for God—the tabernacle, the ark, the table and its instruments, the lampstand and utensils, the incense altar and main altar, the washbasin—was to be anointed. Aaron the high priest and his sons the priests were also to be anointed (Ex 30:26-32). The result was a holy place with holy furnishings, holy implements of worship, and holy ministers.<\/p>\n<p>The offices of prophet, priest, and king were those associated with anointing in the nation of Israel. Prophets were sometimes, but not invariably, inducted by official anointing (1 Kgs 19:16). They could be referred to as God’s anointed ones (1 Chr 16:22; Ps 105:15). At the institution of the levitical priesthood, all the priests were anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex 40:12-15; Nm 3:3). Afterward, anointing was not repeated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but was especially reserved for the high priest (Ex 29:29; Lv 16:32).<\/p>\n<p>Before they had a king of their own, the Israelites were aware of anointing as a mode of inaugurating kings (Jgs 9:8,15). Anointing became a divinely ordained rite accompanying induction of all the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Kgs 9:1-6; 11:12) from Saul onward (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39). David’s anointing took place in three stages (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 2 Sm 2:4; 5:1-4). “The Lord’s anointed” or some similar phrase became a common designation for Hebrew kings (1 Sm 12:3-5; 2 Sm 1:14-16; Ps 89:38, 51; Lam 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing, however, had more than religious or ritualistic significance. Both the Egyptians and the Syrians practiced anointing for medical and cosmetic reasons, and the Scriptures indicate that such nonreligious practice was also a part of Israelite customs (2 Sm 12:20; Ru 3:3; Mi 6:15). In fact, failure to anoint or perfume oneself indicated mourning or distress (2 Sm 14:2; Dn 10:3; Mt 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, anointing of the sick accompanied by prayer for healing by local church elders is recommended when requested by a sick person (Jas 5:14-16). Anointing with oil was also a part of the apostles’ healing ministry (Mk 6:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANOINT<\/h3>\n<p>To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated officers of their national community by pouring special oil on the head of the person designated for office. The same practice was used to set objects apart for special divine use.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture supplies few details of the ceremonial anointings of official things and persons. Jacob simply poured oil on a rock with an accompanying pronouncement. When anointing Israel’s first king, the prophet-judge Samuel took Saul aside for instruction (1 Sm 9:25-27), then “took a vial of oil and poured it on his head, and kissed him and said, ‘Has not the Lord anointed you to be prince over his people Israel’” (1 Sm 10:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). For anointing the tabernacle and its priests, a special oil was compounded and used only for that sacred purpose. Skilled perfume makers blended the choicest spices (myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cane, cassia) in olive oil (Ex 30:22-25). The Lord specified that everything set apart for God—the tabernacle, the ark, the table and its instruments, the lampstand and utensils, the incense altar and main altar, the washbasin—was to be anointed. Aaron the high priest and his sons the priests were also to be anointed (Ex 30:26-32). The result was a holy place with holy furnishings, holy implements of worship, and holy ministers.<\/p>\n<p>The offices of prophet, priest, and king were those associated with anointing in the nation of Israel. Prophets were sometimes, but not invariably, inducted by official anointing (1 Kgs 19:16). They could be referred to as God’s anointed ones (1 Chr 16:22; Ps 105:15). At the institution of the levitical priesthood, all the priests were anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex 40:12-15; Nm 3:3). Afterward, anointing was not repeated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but was especially reserved for the high priest (Ex 29:29; Lv 16:32).<\/p>\n<p>Before they had a king of their own, the Israelites were aware of anointing as a mode of inaugurating kings (Jgs 9:8,15). Anointing became a divinely ordained rite accompanying induction of all the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Kgs 9:1-6; 11:12) from Saul onward (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39). David’s anointing took place in three stages (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 2 Sm 2:4; 5:1-4). “The Lord’s anointed” or some similar phrase became a common designation for Hebrew kings (1 Sm 12:3-5; 2 Sm 1:14-16; Ps 89:38, 51; Lam 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing, however, had more than religious or ritualistic significance. Both the Egyptians and the Syrians practiced anointing for medical and cosmetic reasons, and the Scriptures indicate that such nonreligious practice was also a part of Israelite customs (2 Sm 12:20; Ru 3:3; Mi 6:15). In fact, failure to anoint or perfume oneself indicated mourning or distress (2 Sm 14:2; Dn 10:3; Mt 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, anointing of the sick accompanied by prayer for healing by local church elders is recommended when requested by a sick person (Jas 5:14-16). Anointing with oil was also a part of the apostles’ healing ministry (Mk 6:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANOINT To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion. The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated...","summary_en":"ANOINT To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion. The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9744,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Disease","title_en":"Disease","content_ro":"<h3>DISEASE<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in Scripture synonymously with sickness, infirmity, illness, plague, and pestilence. However, plague and pestilence are generally used when there are large numbers of victims, as in epidemics. “Pestilence” literally means “destruction” and usually describes an epidemic with a high mortality rate. “Affliction” and “torment” are other terms that may include disease, but are broader and are not used synonymously with disease.<\/p>\n<p>During the time the Bible was written, people did not have a detailed concept of anatomy or of how the specific organs of the body functioned. Disease was thought of as abnormal, something that limits one’s ability to function with strength and vitality. The Hebrew word translated “sickness” as a noun means “to be weak” in its cognate verb form. The sick man by the pool of Bethesda is described as being “impotent” (Jn 5:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), unable to get around by himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SourcesofDisease\">Sources of Disease<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, disease has four sources: (1) God, (2) Satan, (3) sins of ancestors, and (4) breaking of physical, mental\/emotional, or moral laws of nature.<\/p>\n<h5>God<\/h5>\n<p>All early peoples attributed events and phenomena to the supernatural, either to various gods or to evil spirits. The Hebrews were different by being strong monotheists, attributing all phenomena to the one true God who had revealed himself to them (Is 45:21). God was responsible for everything, including disease and evil (v 7). This same God could also give material blessings, health, and heal all diseases (Ps 103:3). To the Hebrews, God could give health or sickness, and in either case, he had his purpose or reason.<\/p>\n<p>One purpose of disease was punishment for wrongdoing (2 Sm 24:1, 12-16; 1 Cor 10:8). In the Hebrew mind, even when the immediate cause of the disease and death was obvious—as in many poisonous snakes biting people in the camp—the response was not to kill all the snakes but to pray to God for forgiveness (Nm 21:4-9). Leprosy, which literally means “a smiting,” was a devastating disease sent by God to punish individuals who sinned (Nm 12; 2 Kgs 5:27).<\/p>\n<p>God also sent disease to demonstrate his power or to protect his people. The 10 plagues in Egypt illustrate the former; the elimination of Sennacherib’s army, the latter (2 Kgs 19:34-36).<\/p>\n<h5>Satan<\/h5>\n<p>Satan and other evil spirits could also be responsible for disease. In the biblical scheme of things, Satan’s ability to bring disease is in the permissive will of God. The restriction on Satan’s capacity for harm is clearly spelled out in the case of Job (Jb 1:12). The message of the NT is also clear that, despite cases of demonpossession and of people acting under Satan’s influence, Satan’s time is finite and his ultimate total defeat and destruction are certain.<\/p>\n<h5>Sins of Ancestors<\/h5>\n<p>Sickness could also come about because of the sins of one’s ancestors (Ex 20:5; Lv 26:29; 1 Kgs 17:18; Jb 21:19; Lam 5:7). The most striking example of this is the death of David’s son as a result of his sin with Bathsheba (2 Sm 12:15). This concept of the origin of disease continued into NT times and was familiar to the disciples of Jesus (Jn 9:2).<\/p>\n<h5>Violation of Natural Laws<\/h5>\n<p>This idea sets the Hebrews apart from the other peoples of their day. With the understanding that disease can follow the violation of fixed physical, mental\/emotional, and moral laws comes the idea of personal accountability in obeying these laws and avoiding disease. A person is responsible for his and the community’s health and is not merely a passive victim of supernatural forces.<\/p>\n<p>Based on this concept, Moses set up elaborate codes of behavior to maintain personal health and the health of the community. The Mosaic law covers the areas of diet, personal hygiene, Sabbath observance, sanitary regulations in the camp, cleanliness, and sexual relations. In following these natural laws established by God, the Hebrews could expect freedom from disease (Ex 15:26) and long life (Prv 3:1-2). These health laws of Moses make a lot of sense from a public health point of view even today and are far more rational than the approach of any other ancient people.<\/p>\n<p>Another major consequence of understanding that disease can follow the breaking of the laws of nature is the shift away from the priest and toward physicians when looking for cures. As long as diseases were of supernatural origin, there was no basis for attempting to learn about disease processes in the search for cures. The Hebrews were familiar with physicians in Egypt (Gn 50:2), where they seem to have functioned as embalmers. Physicians were practicing in Israel throughout its history, but only gradually developed the capacity to be of much help (2 Chr 16:12; Jer 8:22; Mk 5:26; Col 4:14). While validating the use of physicians for sick people (Mt 9:12) and of drugs for medicinal purposes (Prv 31:6; 1 Tm 5:23), the Scriptures emphasize the role of the Christian community and its elders in ministering to the sick (Jas 5:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusChristandDisease\">Jesus Christ and Disease<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s approach to people with disease was distinctly different than that of the OT. He was nonjudgmental, interacting with them as people of worth, not as social outcasts. He was full of genuine compassion for them as suffering people—touching them, comforting them, healing them, and speaking normally and naturally with them.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus evidently thought of disease as a hindrance that prevented people from being the whole persons they were created to be. When confronted by a woman with a severe back deformity of 18 years duration, he healed her, saying she had been “bound by Satan” (Lk 13:16). His healing of incurable diseases was one of the proofs he offered that he was the Messiah (Lk 7:19-23). His ministry was directed toward releasing men and women to live life more abundantly (Jn 10:10). He did not fully subscribe to the punitive concept of disease (9:3). When a leper mentioned the possibility that it might not be God’s will for him to be well, Jesus healed him instantly (Mk 1:40; Lk 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was always concerned with the person’s total health or wholeness, rather than merely the symptoms of disease. He frequently dealt with spiritual issues first, even though the sick person was brought to him for a physical problem. His conversation with the Samaritan woman at the well focused on the basic conflicts in her disturbed personality (Jn 4:5-30). And the Sermon on the Mount, which basically deals with right attitudes and motives for human behavior, would greatly reduce personal and social suffering if it were followed. To Jesus, health is more than the mere absence of physical and mental disease; it is whole persons being all that they were meant to be.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Pestilence; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DISEASE<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in Scripture synonymously with sickness, infirmity, illness, plague, and pestilence. However, plague and pestilence are generally used when there are large numbers of victims, as in epidemics. “Pestilence” literally means “destruction” and usually describes an epidemic with a high mortality rate. “Affliction” and “torment” are other terms that may include disease, but are broader and are not used synonymously with disease.<\/p>\n<p>During the time the Bible was written, people did not have a detailed concept of anatomy or of how the specific organs of the body functioned. Disease was thought of as abnormal, something that limits one’s ability to function with strength and vitality. The Hebrew word translated “sickness” as a noun means “to be weak” in its cognate verb form. The sick man by the pool of Bethesda is described as being “impotent” (Jn 5:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), unable to get around by himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SourcesofDisease\">Sources of Disease<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, disease has four sources: (1) God, (2) Satan, (3) sins of ancestors, and (4) breaking of physical, mental\/emotional, or moral laws of nature.<\/p>\n<h5>God<\/h5>\n<p>All early peoples attributed events and phenomena to the supernatural, either to various gods or to evil spirits. The Hebrews were different by being strong monotheists, attributing all phenomena to the one true God who had revealed himself to them (Is 45:21). God was responsible for everything, including disease and evil (v 7). This same God could also give material blessings, health, and heal all diseases (Ps 103:3). To the Hebrews, God could give health or sickness, and in either case, he had his purpose or reason.<\/p>\n<p>One purpose of disease was punishment for wrongdoing (2 Sm 24:1, 12-16; 1 Cor 10:8). In the Hebrew mind, even when the immediate cause of the disease and death was obvious—as in many poisonous snakes biting people in the camp—the response was not to kill all the snakes but to pray to God for forgiveness (Nm 21:4-9). Leprosy, which literally means “a smiting,” was a devastating disease sent by God to punish individuals who sinned (Nm 12; 2 Kgs 5:27).<\/p>\n<p>God also sent disease to demonstrate his power or to protect his people. The 10 plagues in Egypt illustrate the former; the elimination of Sennacherib’s army, the latter (2 Kgs 19:34-36).<\/p>\n<h5>Satan<\/h5>\n<p>Satan and other evil spirits could also be responsible for disease. In the biblical scheme of things, Satan’s ability to bring disease is in the permissive will of God. The restriction on Satan’s capacity for harm is clearly spelled out in the case of Job (Jb 1:12). The message of the NT is also clear that, despite cases of demonpossession and of people acting under Satan’s influence, Satan’s time is finite and his ultimate total defeat and destruction are certain.<\/p>\n<h5>Sins of Ancestors<\/h5>\n<p>Sickness could also come about because of the sins of one’s ancestors (Ex 20:5; Lv 26:29; 1 Kgs 17:18; Jb 21:19; Lam 5:7). The most striking example of this is the death of David’s son as a result of his sin with Bathsheba (2 Sm 12:15). This concept of the origin of disease continued into NT times and was familiar to the disciples of Jesus (Jn 9:2).<\/p>\n<h5>Violation of Natural Laws<\/h5>\n<p>This idea sets the Hebrews apart from the other peoples of their day. With the understanding that disease can follow the violation of fixed physical, mental\/emotional, and moral laws comes the idea of personal accountability in obeying these laws and avoiding disease. A person is responsible for his and the community’s health and is not merely a passive victim of supernatural forces.<\/p>\n<p>Based on this concept, Moses set up elaborate codes of behavior to maintain personal health and the health of the community. The Mosaic law covers the areas of diet, personal hygiene, Sabbath observance, sanitary regulations in the camp, cleanliness, and sexual relations. In following these natural laws established by God, the Hebrews could expect freedom from disease (Ex 15:26) and long life (Prv 3:1-2). These health laws of Moses make a lot of sense from a public health point of view even today and are far more rational than the approach of any other ancient people.<\/p>\n<p>Another major consequence of understanding that disease can follow the breaking of the laws of nature is the shift away from the priest and toward physicians when looking for cures. As long as diseases were of supernatural origin, there was no basis for attempting to learn about disease processes in the search for cures. The Hebrews were familiar with physicians in Egypt (Gn 50:2), where they seem to have functioned as embalmers. Physicians were practicing in Israel throughout its history, but only gradually developed the capacity to be of much help (2 Chr 16:12; Jer 8:22; Mk 5:26; Col 4:14). While validating the use of physicians for sick people (Mt 9:12) and of drugs for medicinal purposes (Prv 31:6; 1 Tm 5:23), the Scriptures emphasize the role of the Christian community and its elders in ministering to the sick (Jas 5:14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusChristandDisease\">Jesus Christ and Disease<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s approach to people with disease was distinctly different than that of the OT. He was nonjudgmental, interacting with them as people of worth, not as social outcasts. He was full of genuine compassion for them as suffering people—touching them, comforting them, healing them, and speaking normally and naturally with them.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus evidently thought of disease as a hindrance that prevented people from being the whole persons they were created to be. When confronted by a woman with a severe back deformity of 18 years duration, he healed her, saying she had been “bound by Satan” (Lk 13:16). His healing of incurable diseases was one of the proofs he offered that he was the Messiah (Lk 7:19-23). His ministry was directed toward releasing men and women to live life more abundantly (Jn 10:10). He did not fully subscribe to the punitive concept of disease (9:3). When a leper mentioned the possibility that it might not be God’s will for him to be well, Jesus healed him instantly (Mk 1:40; Lk 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was always concerned with the person’s total health or wholeness, rather than merely the symptoms of disease. He frequently dealt with spiritual issues first, even though the sick person was brought to him for a physical problem. His conversation with the Samaritan woman at the well focused on the basic conflicts in her disturbed personality (Jn 4:5-30). And the Sermon on the Mount, which basically deals with right attitudes and motives for human behavior, would greatly reduce personal and social suffering if it were followed. To Jesus, health is more than the mere absence of physical and mental disease; it is whole persons being all that they were meant to be.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Pestilence; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DISEASE Term used in Scripture synonymously with sickness, infirmity, illness, plague, and pestilence. However, plague and pestilence are generally used when there are large numbers of victims, as in epidemics. “Pestilence” literally means “destruction” and usually describes an epidemic with a high mortality rate. “Affliction” and “torment” are other terms that may include disease, but are broader and are not used synonymously with disease. During the time the Bible was written, people did no...","summary_en":"DISEASE Term used in Scripture synonymously with sickness, infirmity, illness, plague, and pestilence. However, plague and pestilence are generally used when there are large numbers of victims, as in epidemics. “Pestilence” literally means “destruction” and usually describes an epidemic with a high mortality rate. “Affliction” and “torment” are other terms that may include disease, but are broader and are not used synonymously with disease. During the time the Bible was written, people did no...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10331,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elder","title_en":"Elder","content_ro":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","summary_en":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15664,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Healing Heal","title_en":"Healing Heal","content_ro":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\n<p>To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesustheHealerAccountsintheGospels\">Jesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\n<p>The NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\n<p>Certainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>It is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>Luke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\n<p>John’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsDonebytheApostles\">Healings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsintheChurchAge\">Healings in the Church Age<\/p>\n<p>The letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\n<p>To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesustheHealerAccountsintheGospels\">Jesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\n<p>The NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\n<p>Certainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>It is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>Luke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\n<p>John’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsDonebytheApostles\">Healings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsintheChurchAge\">Healings in the Church Age<\/p>\n<p>The letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","summary_en":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18416,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28371,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oil","title_en":"Oil","content_ro":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","summary_en":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31186,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Presbyter*","title_en":"Presbyter*","content_ro":"<h3>PRESBYTER*<\/h3>\n<p>NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">presbuteroi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). There is evidence to suggest that all elders were of equal status and that the terms “presbyter” and “bishop” were at first used interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Phil 1:1; Ti 1:5-7). In the second century, however, the presiding presbyter gradually emerged as a distinctive figure with a position of preeminence and as the source of authority. As the years passed, the designation “presbyter” was contracted to that of “priest,” and in churches of the episcopal order it remains so today. It is significant, nevertheless, that the NT nowhere links priestly functions with the office of presbyter. With the spread and development of Christianity, the priest became a powerful figure. With eucharistic theology, there grew up unbiblical accretions. These were exposed and rejected when the Reformers triumphed in the 16th century and stressed the priesthood of all believers. In Protestantism priests became ministers, pastors, or (in more modern times) clergymen. In non-Roman Episcopal churches, “priest” is found again today. Even where it is interpreted differently from Roman usage, most evangelical Anglicans refuse to use it. In Presbyterian and similar churches, the elders (whether teaching or ruling) are still officially called presbyters, and all are of equal status.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Pastor; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRESBYTER*<\/h3>\n<p>NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">presbuteroi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). There is evidence to suggest that all elders were of equal status and that the terms “presbyter” and “bishop” were at first used interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Phil 1:1; Ti 1:5-7). In the second century, however, the presiding presbyter gradually emerged as a distinctive figure with a position of preeminence and as the source of authority. As the years passed, the designation “presbyter” was contracted to that of “priest,” and in churches of the episcopal order it remains so today. It is significant, nevertheless, that the NT nowhere links priestly functions with the office of presbyter. With the spread and development of Christianity, the priest became a powerful figure. With eucharistic theology, there grew up unbiblical accretions. These were exposed and rejected when the Reformers triumphed in the 16th century and stressed the priesthood of all believers. In Protestantism priests became ministers, pastors, or (in more modern times) clergymen. In non-Roman Episcopal churches, “priest” is found again today. Even where it is interpreted differently from Roman usage, most evangelical Anglicans refuse to use it. In Presbyterian and similar churches, the elders (whether teaching or ruling) are still officially called presbyters, and all are of equal status.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Elder; Pastor; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRESBYTER* NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (presbuteroi, “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). T...","summary_en":"PRESBYTER* NT term referring to an elder in the church. Following the OT pattern of synagogues governed by a council of elders, the church of the NT had officers (presbuteroi, “older persons”) whose task was to tend the flock of God that was under their care (1 Pt 5:2). Thus, they were called to labor in preaching and teaching (1 Tm 5:17); visit, pray over, and anoint the sick (Jas 5:14); administer famine relief (Acts 11:29-30); and generally oversee the affairs of the church (15:4; 16:4). T...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","summary_en":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86678,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","summary_en":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","summary_en":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> <em>The elders of the church<\/em> were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (<span>AD<\/span> 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word <em>church<\/em> is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • The act of <em>anointing<\/em> <em>. . .<\/em><em> with oil<\/em> symbolizes divine blessing and healing (Isa 1:6; Matt 6:17; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","summary_en":"5:14 The elders of the church were responsible for the well-being of a local assembly of Christians. Elders were selected because of their relative age and their qualifications as Christian leaders (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28; 1 Pet 5:1-4; cp. 1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). • At this early stage in the development of the church (AD 40s; see James Book Introduction, “Date and Location of Writing”), the word church is apparently a non-technical term meaning “congregation, assembly” (cp. Matt 18:17). • T...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":18458,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59053,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","summary_en":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86679,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","summary_en":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","summary_en":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:15<\/strong> <em>a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick:<\/em> This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true <em>faith<\/em> will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • <em>if you have committed any sins:<\/em> James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and <em>forgiven<\/em> (Jas 5:16; see Mark 2:3-12; John 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","summary_en":"5:15 a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick: This proverb is a generally true statement, subject to the will of God. Only prayers that embody true faith will be answered affirmatively by the Lord, and faith for a particular healing is a gift that comes from God. See also Mark 9:23; John 14:13-14; 15:7, 16; 16:23-27; 1 Jn 3:22; 5:14-15. • if you have committed any sins: James suggests that some illnesses might be caused by sin, and it is important that the sin also be confessed and forgi...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":31056,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Power","title_en":"Power","content_ro":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","summary_en":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39945,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Any Other Mediators?","title_en":"Any Other Mediators?","content_ro":"<h3>Any Other Mediators?<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Despite the sufficiency and finality of Christ’s continuing mediation, the desire for additional mediators has lingered in the church, where people have prayed to martyrs, angels, departed saints, celibates, and the Virgin Mary. Biblical grounds for this kind of extended mediation were sought in the oneness of the church on earth and in heaven; in saints in either realm interceding for each other; in allusions to departed souls still praying for others (Lk 16:27-28; cf. Rv 6:9-11); and especially in the vision of Judas Maccabeus, in which Jeremiah and the high priest Onias, both deceased, invoked blessing on the Jews (2 Macc 15:12; cf. Jer 15:1).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>At the same time, John 20:23 was held to show Jesus conferring mediatorial powers of absolution and excommunication upon the apostles and their successors. To these were soon added exclusive powers through the sacraments. This extended mediation was held to complement, not to supplant, that of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Most Protestants, however, deny the mediation of Mary, angels, departed saints, or the clergy, asserting instead the priesthood of all believers (1 Pt 2:5, 9; Rv 1:6; 5:10). This was understood to mean for all Christians the privilege of individual direct access to God (Rom 5:2; Eph 2:18; Heb 10:19-22) and the duty of intercession for others (Rom 15:30; Eph 6:18; Jas 5:16). John 20:23 is held to emphasize the responsibility of all Christians to bring Christ’s forgiveness to others by witnessing to the gospel. Protestants insist upon the sufficient and final mediation of Christ, who came to show us the Father, died to bring us to God, and ever lives to make intercession for us.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Any Other Mediators?<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Despite the sufficiency and finality of Christ’s continuing mediation, the desire for additional mediators has lingered in the church, where people have prayed to martyrs, angels, departed saints, celibates, and the Virgin Mary. Biblical grounds for this kind of extended mediation were sought in the oneness of the church on earth and in heaven; in saints in either realm interceding for each other; in allusions to departed souls still praying for others (Lk 16:27-28; cf. Rv 6:9-11); and especially in the vision of Judas Maccabeus, in which Jeremiah and the high priest Onias, both deceased, invoked blessing on the Jews (2 Macc 15:12; cf. Jer 15:1).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>At the same time, John 20:23 was held to show Jesus conferring mediatorial powers of absolution and excommunication upon the apostles and their successors. To these were soon added exclusive powers through the sacraments. This extended mediation was held to complement, not to supplant, that of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Most Protestants, however, deny the mediation of Mary, angels, departed saints, or the clergy, asserting instead the priesthood of all believers (1 Pt 2:5, 9; Rv 1:6; 5:10). This was understood to mean for all Christians the privilege of individual direct access to God (Rom 5:2; Eph 2:18; Heb 10:19-22) and the duty of intercession for others (Rom 15:30; Eph 6:18; Jas 5:16). John 20:23 is held to emphasize the responsibility of all Christians to bring Christ’s forgiveness to others by witnessing to the gospel. Protestants insist upon the sufficient and final mediation of Christ, who came to show us the Father, died to bring us to God, and ever lives to make intercession for us.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Any Other Mediators? Despite the sufficiency and finality of Christ’s continuing mediation, the desire for additional mediators has lingered in the church, where people have prayed to martyrs, angels, departed saints, celibates, and the Virgin Mary. Biblical grounds for this kind of extended mediation were sought in the oneness of the church on earth and in heaven; in saints in either realm interceding for each other; in allusions to departed souls still praying for others (Lk 16:27-28; cf. R...","summary_en":"Any Other Mediators? Despite the sufficiency and finality of Christ’s continuing mediation, the desire for additional mediators has lingered in the church, where people have prayed to martyrs, angels, departed saints, celibates, and the Virgin Mary. Biblical grounds for this kind of extended mediation were sought in the oneness of the church on earth and in heaven; in saints in either realm interceding for each other; in allusions to departed souls still praying for others (Lk 16:27-28; cf. R...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62085,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit of the Law","title_en":"The Spirit of the Law","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","summary_en":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62159,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89711,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit of the Law","title_en":"The Spirit of the Law","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","summary_en":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89785,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117337,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit of the Law","title_en":"The Spirit of the Law","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","summary_en":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117411,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144963,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit of the Law","title_en":"The Spirit of the Law","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit of the Law<\/h3>\n<p>In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the Passover at the scheduled time.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah proceeded with the Passover, holding it a month late (30:15). He deemed having the celebration to be more important than holding it at the prescribed time. By deferring the date with the express purpose of allowing time for the people to gather at the Temple in Jerusalem, Hezekiah achieved harmony between Judah and the people from the northern kingdom and unified the celebration.<\/p>\n<p>The precise regulations were less important than ensuring that the Passover was observed and that all could participate. Also, when the festival began, many of the people were not properly purified, so they were unable to slaughter their own sacrifices as the law required. Again, Hezekiah determined that it was more important for people to participate in the Passover than to meet the precise regulations. Hezekiah prayed for the pilgrims who had no opportunity to be properly prepared; they were not allowed to make the sacrifice in a state of impurity, but they were allowed to participate in the Passover. The right heart attitude and seeking the Lord in prayer brought God’s gracious acceptance (30:18-20; cp. 1 Cor 11:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was often criticized by the religious leaders of his day for failing to observe certain aspects of the law, especially regarding Sabbath observance and purity. Jesus’ teaching and actions conveyed that it was more important to demonstrate love toward others than to follow every minute detail of the law. He also spoke harshly of the religious leaders’ own tendency to prioritize the particularities of law observance over the principles that undergird the law. While strict law observance was foundational to Jewish identity, the spirit of the law allowed for a measure of adaptability in certain circumstances.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-30; 2 Kgs 5:17-19; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Matt 15:21-28; John 8:1-11; Rom 3:23-28; 1 Cor 11:27-34; Heb 9:13-15; Jas 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","summary_en":"The Spirit of the Law In seeking to celebrate the Passover, Hezekiah faced a dilemma. The Passover, a celebration of Israel’s redemption from Egypt, was the first festival of Israel’s liturgical year (Exod 12:1-2). Hezekiah had worked to restore Israel’s worship of the Lord. But the time between the beginning of his renewal and the first month of the year did not allow the priests sufficient time to be prepared and to gather the people (2 Chr 30:2-3). As a result, he could not celebrate the P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145037,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":41566,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elijah","title_en":"Elijah","content_ro":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","summary_en":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69192,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elijah","title_en":"Elijah","content_ro":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","summary_en":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96818,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elijah","title_en":"Elijah","content_ro":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","summary_en":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124444,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elijah","title_en":"Elijah","content_ro":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elijah<\/h3>\n<p>Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 <span>BC<\/span>). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a widow in Zarephath, a town in Jezebel’s home territory of Sidon. The widow’s son died, but Elijah prayed for him and he was revived (1 Kgs 17:8-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of drought, Elijah challenged Baal’s prophets to a contest on Mount Carmel to demonstrate the identity of the true God (1 Kgs 18:1-40). The prophets of Baal called on Baal in vain, becoming frantic to induce him to appear, while Elijah made fun of Baal. When it was Elijah’s turn, he poured water over his sacrifice and prayed a simple, powerful prayer. Fire immediately consumed the offering. In response, the people of Israel worshiped the Lord and, at Elijah’s direction, killed Baal’s prophets. Then Elijah prayed for rain, and the drought ended (1 Kgs 18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>Even with such tremendous displays of God’s power, Ahab and Jezebel continued to lead Israel astray. Jezebel was furious that her prophets had been killed (1 Kgs 19:1-2). She threatened Elijah, who fled to the desert and asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel nourished him until he reached Mount Sinai. Elijah complained that he was the only remaining prophet of the Lord and that his life was at risk. God encouraged him in a quiet voice, gave him good news, then recommissioned him for service (1 Kgs 19:3-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah was single-minded in his devotion to the true God. He had an assistant named Elisha whom he trained well. At the end of Elijah’s earthly existence, rather than dying, he was caught up into heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kgs 2:11-12). Elisha inherited Elijah’s prophetic mantle and continued the task of confronting false worship in Israel (see 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-25).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament closes with the expectation that Elijah would return before the day of the Lord (Mal 4:5-6), an expectation that John the Baptist fulfilled, at least in part (see Matt 11:7-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). Elijah appeared with Moses at Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:1-9). In Revelation 11:3-12, one of the two witnesses seems either to be Elijah himself or to be modeled after Elijah. Elijah’s life illustrates God’s kindness and the effectiveness of prayer (Luke 4:25-26; Rom 11:2-6; Jas 5:17-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29; 2 Kgs 1:1–2:25; 9:36; 10:10, 17; 2 Chr 21:12-15; Mal 4:5-6; Matt 11:14; 16:14; 17:1-13; 27:45-49; Mark 6:15; 8:28; 9:2-13; 15:33-36; Luke 1:17; 4:26; 9:28-36; John 1:19-28; Rom 11:1-6; Jas 5:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","summary_en":"Elijah Elijah from Tishbe served as prophet of Israel during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah (874–852 BC). His name means “my God is Yahweh,” and his ministry involved demonstrating that the Lord is the one true God and calling Israel back to the Lord. Under Ahab and Jezebel, Israel began worshiping Baal, a Canaanite fertility god of storm and rain, so God sent a drought upon Israel (1 Kgs 17:1). Elijah hid until the drought ended, and he was sustained by God. During that time, he lived with a...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":801,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ahab","title_en":"Ahab","content_ro":"<h3>AHAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eighth king of the northern kingdom of Israel, who reigned about 874–853 <span>BC<\/span>. His father, Omri, founded a dynasty that lasted 40 years, through the reigns of Ahab and his two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram. Omri’s dynasty had an impact beyond biblical history, being mentioned on the famous Moabite Stone and in several Assyrian inscriptions. According to 1 Kings, Omri was a general in the army of King Elah, son of Baasha. When Elah was assassinated, Omri was acclaimed king by his own forces in the field (16:8-16). He prevailed in the resulting civil war and occupied Tirzah, the capital city (16:17-23). Soon he moved his capital to Samaria and built fortifications in the region (16:24). Omri also made an alliance with the Phoenicians, as David and Solomon had done, but was condemned for it by later generations. When Ahab succeeded his father (16:28), he pursued this alliance by marrying the Phoenician king’s daughter, Jezebel (16:29-31).<\/li>\n\n<p>Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, an immoral and fanatical pagan, strongly affected Israel (21:21-26) and had consequences even in the southern kingdom of Judah. Athaliah, their daughter, married Jehoram of Judah and the results of this marriage were disastrous (2 Kgs 8:17-18, 26-27; 11:1-20). Under Jezebel’s influence Ahab gave up the worship of God and took up Baal worship. Ahab’s new religion was a fertility cult that featured sexual unions between priests and temple “virgins,” practices explicitly contrary to the laws of God. Even in marrying Jezebel, Ahab had violated the biblical prohibition of marriage to pagans (Dt 7:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical narrative mentions that Ahab built many cities (1 Kgs 22:39) and fought a number of wars, but for the most part it centers on the great prophetic figure, Elijah (1 Kgs 17:1; 18:1; 19:1). Early in Ahab’s reign, God sent Elijah to predict years of drought and famine as punishment for the king’s sin (1 Kgs 17:1; 18:16-18). The drought lasted three and a half years and was such a remarkable period in Israel’s history that it was remembered into NT times (Lk 4:25; Jas 5:17). It was a time of great suffering for both people and animals (1 Kgs 18:5). At the end of the three and a half years Elijah challenged Ahab to gather all the pagan prophets for a final confrontation between God and Baal. Elijah taunted the 450 prophets of Baal for not being able to attract the attention of their false god. Then he prayed to God, and fire fell from heaven on God’s altar. The people shouted their belief in God and helped Elijah execute the pagan prophets (1 Kgs 18:16-40). The drought ended immediately (18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>When she heard what had happened to her prophets, Jezebel swore revenge. Elijah fled, and on Mt Horeb, God told him to anoint Jehu to become king of Israel in place of Ahab (1 Kgs 19:1-16). This assignment was carried out by the prophet’s successor, Elisha (1 Kgs 19:19-21; 2 Kgs 9:1-10). Elijah then challenged Ahab’s acquisition of a vineyard owned by a man named Naboth (1 Kgs 21:1-16). When Naboth refused to sell his land to the king, Jezebel had false witnesses swear that Naboth had cursed God and the king. Naboth was stoned to death for blasphemy. Elijah denounced Ahab, saying that as a judgment God would bring a bloody end to his family (1 Kgs 21:17-24). Ahab’s repentance caused God to postpone the judgment until after Ahab’s death (1 Kgs 21:27-29; 2 Kgs 10:1-14).<\/p>\n<p>During his reign Ahab had military encounters with King Ben-hadad II of Syria (Aram), largely provoked by the Syrians. In the first encounter Ben-hadad besieged Samaria, Israel’s capital, and demanded heavy tribute. Ahab refused the demands and called a council of elders. As the Syrians were preparing to attack, a prophet advised Ahab to attack first (1 Kgs 20:1-14). The Syrians were routed and Ben-hadad barely escaped with his life (1 Kgs 20:15-22). The following year Ben-hadad mounted another attack on Ahab’s forces, was again defeated, and eventually surrendered to Ahab (1 Kgs 20:23-33). Ben-hadad gave up some Israelite cities that had been overrun by his father and granted Israel trading posts in Damascus (20:34). God rebuked Ahab through a prophet for forming such an alliance with a pagan power (1 Kgs 20:35-43).<\/p>\n<p>In Ahab’s last war with Syria, he had the advantage of an alliance with the king of Judah, Jehoshaphat (1 Kgs 22:2-4; 2 Chr 18:1-3). That alliance had been fortified by the marriage of Ahab’s daughter Athaliah to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. Ahab proposed a campaign for the recovery of Ramoth-gilead in the northeast corner of Israel. When Jehoshaphat refused to believe the optimistic predictions of Ahab’s 400 prophets, a prophet of God named Micaiah was called, who foretold Ahab’s death (1 Kgs 22:5-28; 2 Chr 18:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>For the battle with Syria, Jehoshaphat put on his royal robes. Ahab tried to disguise himself as an ordinary soldier, but a Syrian archer hit him between the joints of his armor. Ahab died that evening, and his troops gave up the battle. His chariot and armor were washed beside the pool of Samaria, where, as Elijah had prophesied, dogs licked Ahab’s blood. The fallen king was succeeded by his son Ahaziah (1 Kgs 22:29-40; 2 Chr 18:28-34).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elijah #1; Jezebel; Israel, History of; King; Kings, Books of First and Second; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>\n\n<li>2. Kolaiah’s son, a notorious false prophet in the closing days of Judah. He was among the Jews taken to Babylon in the deportation of Jehoiachin (598–597 <span>BC<\/span>). This Ahab and his colleague Zedekiah were denounced by the prophet Jeremiah for lying in God’s name and for their sexual immorality (Jer 29:21-23).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AHAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eighth king of the northern kingdom of Israel, who reigned about 874–853 <span>BC<\/span>. His father, Omri, founded a dynasty that lasted 40 years, through the reigns of Ahab and his two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram. Omri’s dynasty had an impact beyond biblical history, being mentioned on the famous Moabite Stone and in several Assyrian inscriptions. According to 1 Kings, Omri was a general in the army of King Elah, son of Baasha. When Elah was assassinated, Omri was acclaimed king by his own forces in the field (16:8-16). He prevailed in the resulting civil war and occupied Tirzah, the capital city (16:17-23). Soon he moved his capital to Samaria and built fortifications in the region (16:24). Omri also made an alliance with the Phoenicians, as David and Solomon had done, but was condemned for it by later generations. When Ahab succeeded his father (16:28), he pursued this alliance by marrying the Phoenician king’s daughter, Jezebel (16:29-31).<\/li>\n\n<p>Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, an immoral and fanatical pagan, strongly affected Israel (21:21-26) and had consequences even in the southern kingdom of Judah. Athaliah, their daughter, married Jehoram of Judah and the results of this marriage were disastrous (2 Kgs 8:17-18, 26-27; 11:1-20). Under Jezebel’s influence Ahab gave up the worship of God and took up Baal worship. Ahab’s new religion was a fertility cult that featured sexual unions between priests and temple “virgins,” practices explicitly contrary to the laws of God. Even in marrying Jezebel, Ahab had violated the biblical prohibition of marriage to pagans (Dt 7:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical narrative mentions that Ahab built many cities (1 Kgs 22:39) and fought a number of wars, but for the most part it centers on the great prophetic figure, Elijah (1 Kgs 17:1; 18:1; 19:1). Early in Ahab’s reign, God sent Elijah to predict years of drought and famine as punishment for the king’s sin (1 Kgs 17:1; 18:16-18). The drought lasted three and a half years and was such a remarkable period in Israel’s history that it was remembered into NT times (Lk 4:25; Jas 5:17). It was a time of great suffering for both people and animals (1 Kgs 18:5). At the end of the three and a half years Elijah challenged Ahab to gather all the pagan prophets for a final confrontation between God and Baal. Elijah taunted the 450 prophets of Baal for not being able to attract the attention of their false god. Then he prayed to God, and fire fell from heaven on God’s altar. The people shouted their belief in God and helped Elijah execute the pagan prophets (1 Kgs 18:16-40). The drought ended immediately (18:41-46).<\/p>\n<p>When she heard what had happened to her prophets, Jezebel swore revenge. Elijah fled, and on Mt Horeb, God told him to anoint Jehu to become king of Israel in place of Ahab (1 Kgs 19:1-16). This assignment was carried out by the prophet’s successor, Elisha (1 Kgs 19:19-21; 2 Kgs 9:1-10). Elijah then challenged Ahab’s acquisition of a vineyard owned by a man named Naboth (1 Kgs 21:1-16). When Naboth refused to sell his land to the king, Jezebel had false witnesses swear that Naboth had cursed God and the king. Naboth was stoned to death for blasphemy. Elijah denounced Ahab, saying that as a judgment God would bring a bloody end to his family (1 Kgs 21:17-24). Ahab’s repentance caused God to postpone the judgment until after Ahab’s death (1 Kgs 21:27-29; 2 Kgs 10:1-14).<\/p>\n<p>During his reign Ahab had military encounters with King Ben-hadad II of Syria (Aram), largely provoked by the Syrians. In the first encounter Ben-hadad besieged Samaria, Israel’s capital, and demanded heavy tribute. Ahab refused the demands and called a council of elders. As the Syrians were preparing to attack, a prophet advised Ahab to attack first (1 Kgs 20:1-14). The Syrians were routed and Ben-hadad barely escaped with his life (1 Kgs 20:15-22). The following year Ben-hadad mounted another attack on Ahab’s forces, was again defeated, and eventually surrendered to Ahab (1 Kgs 20:23-33). Ben-hadad gave up some Israelite cities that had been overrun by his father and granted Israel trading posts in Damascus (20:34). God rebuked Ahab through a prophet for forming such an alliance with a pagan power (1 Kgs 20:35-43).<\/p>\n<p>In Ahab’s last war with Syria, he had the advantage of an alliance with the king of Judah, Jehoshaphat (1 Kgs 22:2-4; 2 Chr 18:1-3). That alliance had been fortified by the marriage of Ahab’s daughter Athaliah to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. Ahab proposed a campaign for the recovery of Ramoth-gilead in the northeast corner of Israel. When Jehoshaphat refused to believe the optimistic predictions of Ahab’s 400 prophets, a prophet of God named Micaiah was called, who foretold Ahab’s death (1 Kgs 22:5-28; 2 Chr 18:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>For the battle with Syria, Jehoshaphat put on his royal robes. Ahab tried to disguise himself as an ordinary soldier, but a Syrian archer hit him between the joints of his armor. Ahab died that evening, and his troops gave up the battle. His chariot and armor were washed beside the pool of Samaria, where, as Elijah had prophesied, dogs licked Ahab’s blood. The fallen king was succeeded by his son Ahaziah (1 Kgs 22:29-40; 2 Chr 18:28-34).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elijah #1; Jezebel; Israel, History of; King; Kings, Books of First and Second; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>\n\n<li>2. Kolaiah’s son, a notorious false prophet in the closing days of Judah. He was among the Jews taken to Babylon in the deportation of Jehoiachin (598–597 <span>BC<\/span>). This Ahab and his colleague Zedekiah were denounced by the prophet Jeremiah for lying in God’s name and for their sexual immorality (Jer 29:21-23).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AHAB 1. Eighth king of the northern kingdom of Israel, who reigned about 874–853 BC. His father, Omri, founded a dynasty that lasted 40 years, through the reigns of Ahab and his two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram. Omri’s dynasty had an impact beyond biblical history, being mentioned on the famous Moabite Stone and in several Assyrian inscriptions. According to 1 Kings, Omri was a general in the army of King Elah, son of Baasha. When Elah was assassinated, Omri was acclaimed king by his own forces ...","summary_en":"AHAB 1. Eighth king of the northern kingdom of Israel, who reigned about 874–853 BC. His father, Omri, founded a dynasty that lasted 40 years, through the reigns of Ahab and his two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram. Omri’s dynasty had an impact beyond biblical history, being mentioned on the famous Moabite Stone and in several Assyrian inscriptions. According to 1 Kings, Omri was a general in the army of King Elah, son of Baasha. When Elah was assassinated, Omri was acclaimed king by his own forces ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10589,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elijah","title_en":"Elijah","content_ro":"<h3>ELIJAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ninth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophet of Israel. Elijah’s name means “my God is the Lord”—appropriate for a stalwart opponent of Baal worship. The Scriptures give no information regarding his family background except that he was a Tishbite who probably came from the land of Gilead on the east bank of the Jordan River. He lived primarily during the reigns of kings Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ahaziah (853–852 <span>BC<\/span>) of Israel. The biblical account of Elijah runs from 1 Kings 17 to 2 Kings 2.<\/li>\n<p>Elijah was called by God at a critical period in Israel’s life. Economically and politically the northern kingdom was in its strongest position since its separation from the southern kingdom. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) had initiated a policy of trade and friendly relations with the Phoenicians. To show his good faith, Omri gave his son Ahab in marriage to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre. She brought Baal worship with her to Israel, a false religion whose rapid spread soon threatened the kingdom’s very existence. Elijah was sent to turn the nation and its leaders back to the Lord through his prophetic message and miracles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WarningofDrought\">Warning of Drought<\/p>\n<p>Elijah began his recorded ministry by telling Ahab that the nation would suffer a drought until the prophet himself announced its end (1 Kgs 17:1). He thus repeated Moses’ warning (Lv 26:14-39; Dt 28:15-68) of the consequences of turning away from God.<\/p>\n<p>Elijah then hid himself in a ravine on the east bank of the Jordan River by the brook Cherith (possibly the valley of the Yarmuk River in north Gilead). There he had sufficient water for his needs, and ravens brought him food twice daily. When the brook dried up, Elijah was directed to move to the Phoenician village of Zarephath near Sidon. A widow took care of him from her scanty supplies, and her obedience to Elijah was rewarded by a miraculous supply of meal and oil that was not depleted until the drought ended.<\/p>\n<p>While Elijah was staying with the widow, her son became ill and died. By the power of prayer, the child was restored to life and good health.<\/p>\n<p>In the drought’s third year the Lord told Elijah to inform Ahab that God would soon provide rain for Israel. On his return, Elijah first encountered Ahab’s officer, Obadiah, who was searching for water for the king’s livestock. Elijah sent Obadiah to arrange a meeting with Ahab. At first Obadiah refused. For three years Ahab had searched Israel and the neighboring kingdoms in vain for the prophet, no doubt in order to force him to end the drought. Obadiah was certain that while he went to bring Ahab, Israel’s most wanted “outlaw” would elude them again, thus enraging the king. When Elijah promised him that he would stay until he returned, the officer arranged for Ahab to meet the prophet.<\/p>\n<p>In the subsequent meeting Elijah rejected the king’s allegation that he was the “troubler of Israel” (1 Kgs 18:17-18). He was only obeying God, he insisted, in pointing out Ahab’s idolatry. Ahab had even permitted Jezebel to subsidize a school of Baal and Asherah prophets. Elijah then requested a public gathering on Mt Carmel as a contest between the prophets of Baal and the prophets of the Lord to determine who was the true God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConfrontationonCarmel\">Confrontation on Carmel<\/p>\n<p>One of the highlights of Elijah’s ministry was the contest on Mt Carmel. Ahab assembled all Israel along with 850 prophets of Baal and Asherah. The famous challenge was issued: “How long are you going to waver between two opinions? If the <span>Lord<\/span> is God, follow him! But if Baal is God, then follow him!” (1 Kgs 18:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sacrificial animals were to be placed on two altars, one for Baal and one for the Lord, and the prophets representing each were to ask for fire from their God.<\/p>\n<p>All day long the pagan prophets called in vain on Baal. They danced a whirling, frenzied dance, cutting themselves with knives until their blood gushed. But there was no answer. Finally, Elijah’s turn came. He repaired the demolished altar of the Lord and prepared the sacrifice. For dramatic effect, he built a trench around the altar and poured water over the sacrifice until the trench overflowed. Then he said a brief prayer, and immediately fire fell from heaven and consumed the burnt offering, the wood, the stones, and the dust, and licked up the water that was in the trench (1 Kgs 18:38).<\/p>\n<p>When the people saw it, they fell on their faces in repentance, chanting, “The <span>Lord<\/span> is God! The <span>Lord<\/span> is God!” (1 Kgs 18:39). At Elijah’s command the people seized the prophets of Baal and killed them by the brook Kishon. Then Elijah, at the top of Carmel, began to pray fervently for rain. Dramatically, the sky became black with clouds and rain began to pour, ending the long drought. Ahab rode back in his chariot to Jezreel, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the east. God’s Spirit enabled Elijah to outrun Ahab, and he arrived in Jezreel first.<\/p>\n<p>Jezebel, furious over the massacre of the Baal prophets, sent a message to Elijah: “May the gods also kill me if by this time tomorrow I have failed to take your life like those whom you killed” (1 Kgs 19:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). When Elijah received her message, he panicked and fled to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExperienceatHoreb\">Experience at Horeb<\/p>\n<p>Elijah left his servant in Beersheba, going another day’s journey into the desert alone. There he lay down under a broom tree and, in despair and exhaustion, asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel appeared, nourishing him twice with bread and water. After he had slept, Elijah continued on his way.<\/p>\n\n<p>After 40 days, Elijah arrived at Mt Horeb, where he found shelter in a cave. There the Lord spoke to him, asking what he was doing there. The prophet explained that he was the only prophet of God left in Israel, and now even his life was threatened. In response, the mighty forces of nature—a great wind, an earthquake, and fire—were displayed before Elijah to show him that the omnipotent God could intercede on his behalf with a powerful hand. Finally God encouraged Elijah in a “still, small voice.” The Lord had further tasks for him to accomplish. God also told Elijah that he was not the only faithful person in Israel; 7,000 others remained true to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Since Elijah had faithfully delivered God’s message to Ahab, the Lord commissioned him to deliver another message, one of judgment on Israel’s continuing failure to listen to God. The instruments of retribution were to be Hazael, who would become king in Syria (c. 893–796 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jehu, who would become king of Israel (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>). Elijah was instructed to anoint both of them. He was also told to anoint his successor, Elisha, to be his understudy until it was time for Elisha’s full ministry to begin.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConfrontationconcerningNaboth\">Confrontation concerning Naboth<\/p>\n<p>After his return to Israel, one of Elijah’s boldest confrontations with King Ahab was over Naboth’s vineyard. Although Ahab wanted Naboth’s property, he was sensitive to the law regarding ownership of land. Further, Ahab never completely abandoned the faith of his fathers (1 Kgs 21:27-29). Jezebel, however, had no regard for the Mosaic law and conspired to have Naboth put to death on a false charge.<\/p>\n<p>When Ahab then took possession of the vineyard, Elijah branded him as a murderer and a robber. He predicted divine judgment—the fall of Ahab’s dynasty and Jezebel’s horrible death (1 Kgs 21:17-24). Ahab repented, however, and the judgment was postponed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AhaziahsFolly\">Ahaziah’s Folly<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s judgment on Ahab was finally executed when the king was killed in a battle with Syria in 853 <span>BC<\/span>. The dogs licked up Ahab’s blood, as the prophet had predicted (1 Kgs 21:19). Shortly after Ahaziah had succeeded his father as king, he suffered a crippling fall. While lying ill, he sent messengers to ask Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron, whether he would recover. The Lord sent Elijah to intercept them and give them a message for the king: a rebuke for ignoring the God of Israel and a warning of the king’s impending death.<\/p>\n<p>Ahaziah angrily sent a captain with 50 soldiers to arrest Elijah. They were consumed by fire from heaven at Elijah’s words. A second captain and another 50 soldiers were sent but met the same fate. The third captain who came begged the prophet to spare his and his soldiers’ lives. Elijah went with this captain and delivered God’s message to the king personally. The king would not recover but would die because he had inquired from pagan gods rather than from the true God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WarningtoJehoram\">Warning to Jehoram<\/p>\n<p>Elijah had been called primarily to minister to Israel, but he also delivered God’s word of warning to Jehoram, king of Judah, rebuking him for following Israel in its idolatry and for not walking in the godly ways of his father and grandfather (2 Chr 21:12-15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahsAscentintoHeaven\">Elijah’s Ascent into Heaven<\/p>\n<p>When the end of Elijah’s ministry drew near, Elisha refused to leave him. After a journey that took them to schools of the prophets at Bethel and Jericho, the two crossed the Jordan River miraculously; Elijah struck the waters with his mantle and they parted. Elisha requested a double portion (the firstborn’s share, cf. Dt 21:17) of his master’s spirit, for he desired to be Elijah’s full successor. Elisha knew his request was granted because he saw Elijah pass into the heavens in a whirlwind bearing a chariot and horses of fire. The young prophets who had accompanied Elisha searched in vain for Elijah in the mountains and valleys around the Jordan; God had taken his faithful prophet home. Elijah thus joined Enoch as the only other man in the Bible who did not experience death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahsMessageandMiracles\">Elijah’s Message and Miracles<\/p>\n<p>As the Baal worship of Tyre made inroads into Israel through Jezebel, Elijah was sent to check its spread by emphasizing again that Israel’s God was the only God of the whole earth. He began a vital work that was continued by Jehu, who slaughtered many of the Baal worshipers among Israel’s leaders (2 Kgs 10:18-28). Elijah’s specific mission was to destroy heathen worship in order to spare Israel, thus preparing the way for the prophets who were to follow in his spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles were prominent in Elijah’s ministry, given as a sign to confirm him as God’s spokesman and to turn Israel’s kings back to God. Some scholars have rejected these miracles or tried to explain them away. The OT, however, clearly testifies to their validity, and the NT affirms them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahandtheNewTestament\">Elijah and the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Malachi named Elijah as the forerunner of the “great and terrible day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” who will “turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers” (Mal 4:5-6). Jewish writers have often taken up the same theme in their literature: Elijah will “restore the tribes of Jacob” (Ecclus 48:10); he is mentioned in the Qumran <em>Manual of Discipline<\/em> of the Dead Sea Scrolls; he is the central sign of the resurrection of the dead according to the Mishnah, the collection of Jewish oral law; and he is the subject of songs sung at the close of the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Malachi’s prophecy was interpreted in the angelic annunciation to Zechariah as pointing to John the Baptist, who was to do the work of another Elijah (Lk 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span> “Elias”) and was confirmed by Jesus himself (Mt 11:14; 17:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus also alluded to Elijah’s sojourn in the land of Sidon (Lk 4:25-26), and the apostle Paul referred to the prophet’s experience at Mt Horeb (Rom 11:2). The apostle James used Elijah to illustrate what it means to be a righteous man and a man of prayer (Jas 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah appeared again on the Mt of Transfiguration with Moses as they discussed Jesus’ approaching death (Mt 17:1-13; Lk 9:28-36). Some Bible scholars believe that Elijah will return as one of the two witnesses of the end times (Rv 11:3-12), in fulfillment of Malachi’s prophecy that he is to come before the dreadful judgment day of God.<\/p>\n<li>2. Chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:27, <span>kjv<\/span> “Eliah”).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married a gentile wife (Ezr 10:21).<\/li>\n<li>4. Layman who also married a foreign wife (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELIJAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ninth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophet of Israel. Elijah’s name means “my God is the Lord”—appropriate for a stalwart opponent of Baal worship. The Scriptures give no information regarding his family background except that he was a Tishbite who probably came from the land of Gilead on the east bank of the Jordan River. He lived primarily during the reigns of kings Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ahaziah (853–852 <span>BC<\/span>) of Israel. The biblical account of Elijah runs from 1 Kings 17 to 2 Kings 2.<\/li>\n<p>Elijah was called by God at a critical period in Israel’s life. Economically and politically the northern kingdom was in its strongest position since its separation from the southern kingdom. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) had initiated a policy of trade and friendly relations with the Phoenicians. To show his good faith, Omri gave his son Ahab in marriage to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre. She brought Baal worship with her to Israel, a false religion whose rapid spread soon threatened the kingdom’s very existence. Elijah was sent to turn the nation and its leaders back to the Lord through his prophetic message and miracles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WarningofDrought\">Warning of Drought<\/p>\n<p>Elijah began his recorded ministry by telling Ahab that the nation would suffer a drought until the prophet himself announced its end (1 Kgs 17:1). He thus repeated Moses’ warning (Lv 26:14-39; Dt 28:15-68) of the consequences of turning away from God.<\/p>\n<p>Elijah then hid himself in a ravine on the east bank of the Jordan River by the brook Cherith (possibly the valley of the Yarmuk River in north Gilead). There he had sufficient water for his needs, and ravens brought him food twice daily. When the brook dried up, Elijah was directed to move to the Phoenician village of Zarephath near Sidon. A widow took care of him from her scanty supplies, and her obedience to Elijah was rewarded by a miraculous supply of meal and oil that was not depleted until the drought ended.<\/p>\n<p>While Elijah was staying with the widow, her son became ill and died. By the power of prayer, the child was restored to life and good health.<\/p>\n<p>In the drought’s third year the Lord told Elijah to inform Ahab that God would soon provide rain for Israel. On his return, Elijah first encountered Ahab’s officer, Obadiah, who was searching for water for the king’s livestock. Elijah sent Obadiah to arrange a meeting with Ahab. At first Obadiah refused. For three years Ahab had searched Israel and the neighboring kingdoms in vain for the prophet, no doubt in order to force him to end the drought. Obadiah was certain that while he went to bring Ahab, Israel’s most wanted “outlaw” would elude them again, thus enraging the king. When Elijah promised him that he would stay until he returned, the officer arranged for Ahab to meet the prophet.<\/p>\n<p>In the subsequent meeting Elijah rejected the king’s allegation that he was the “troubler of Israel” (1 Kgs 18:17-18). He was only obeying God, he insisted, in pointing out Ahab’s idolatry. Ahab had even permitted Jezebel to subsidize a school of Baal and Asherah prophets. Elijah then requested a public gathering on Mt Carmel as a contest between the prophets of Baal and the prophets of the Lord to determine who was the true God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConfrontationonCarmel\">Confrontation on Carmel<\/p>\n<p>One of the highlights of Elijah’s ministry was the contest on Mt Carmel. Ahab assembled all Israel along with 850 prophets of Baal and Asherah. The famous challenge was issued: “How long are you going to waver between two opinions? If the <span>Lord<\/span> is God, follow him! But if Baal is God, then follow him!” (1 Kgs 18:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sacrificial animals were to be placed on two altars, one for Baal and one for the Lord, and the prophets representing each were to ask for fire from their God.<\/p>\n<p>All day long the pagan prophets called in vain on Baal. They danced a whirling, frenzied dance, cutting themselves with knives until their blood gushed. But there was no answer. Finally, Elijah’s turn came. He repaired the demolished altar of the Lord and prepared the sacrifice. For dramatic effect, he built a trench around the altar and poured water over the sacrifice until the trench overflowed. Then he said a brief prayer, and immediately fire fell from heaven and consumed the burnt offering, the wood, the stones, and the dust, and licked up the water that was in the trench (1 Kgs 18:38).<\/p>\n<p>When the people saw it, they fell on their faces in repentance, chanting, “The <span>Lord<\/span> is God! The <span>Lord<\/span> is God!” (1 Kgs 18:39). At Elijah’s command the people seized the prophets of Baal and killed them by the brook Kishon. Then Elijah, at the top of Carmel, began to pray fervently for rain. Dramatically, the sky became black with clouds and rain began to pour, ending the long drought. Ahab rode back in his chariot to Jezreel, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the east. God’s Spirit enabled Elijah to outrun Ahab, and he arrived in Jezreel first.<\/p>\n<p>Jezebel, furious over the massacre of the Baal prophets, sent a message to Elijah: “May the gods also kill me if by this time tomorrow I have failed to take your life like those whom you killed” (1 Kgs 19:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). When Elijah received her message, he panicked and fled to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExperienceatHoreb\">Experience at Horeb<\/p>\n<p>Elijah left his servant in Beersheba, going another day’s journey into the desert alone. There he lay down under a broom tree and, in despair and exhaustion, asked God to take his life. Instead, an angel appeared, nourishing him twice with bread and water. After he had slept, Elijah continued on his way.<\/p>\n\n<p>After 40 days, Elijah arrived at Mt Horeb, where he found shelter in a cave. There the Lord spoke to him, asking what he was doing there. The prophet explained that he was the only prophet of God left in Israel, and now even his life was threatened. In response, the mighty forces of nature—a great wind, an earthquake, and fire—were displayed before Elijah to show him that the omnipotent God could intercede on his behalf with a powerful hand. Finally God encouraged Elijah in a “still, small voice.” The Lord had further tasks for him to accomplish. God also told Elijah that he was not the only faithful person in Israel; 7,000 others remained true to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Since Elijah had faithfully delivered God’s message to Ahab, the Lord commissioned him to deliver another message, one of judgment on Israel’s continuing failure to listen to God. The instruments of retribution were to be Hazael, who would become king in Syria (c. 893–796 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jehu, who would become king of Israel (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>). Elijah was instructed to anoint both of them. He was also told to anoint his successor, Elisha, to be his understudy until it was time for Elisha’s full ministry to begin.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConfrontationconcerningNaboth\">Confrontation concerning Naboth<\/p>\n<p>After his return to Israel, one of Elijah’s boldest confrontations with King Ahab was over Naboth’s vineyard. Although Ahab wanted Naboth’s property, he was sensitive to the law regarding ownership of land. Further, Ahab never completely abandoned the faith of his fathers (1 Kgs 21:27-29). Jezebel, however, had no regard for the Mosaic law and conspired to have Naboth put to death on a false charge.<\/p>\n<p>When Ahab then took possession of the vineyard, Elijah branded him as a murderer and a robber. He predicted divine judgment—the fall of Ahab’s dynasty and Jezebel’s horrible death (1 Kgs 21:17-24). Ahab repented, however, and the judgment was postponed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AhaziahsFolly\">Ahaziah’s Folly<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s judgment on Ahab was finally executed when the king was killed in a battle with Syria in 853 <span>BC<\/span>. The dogs licked up Ahab’s blood, as the prophet had predicted (1 Kgs 21:19). Shortly after Ahaziah had succeeded his father as king, he suffered a crippling fall. While lying ill, he sent messengers to ask Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron, whether he would recover. The Lord sent Elijah to intercept them and give them a message for the king: a rebuke for ignoring the God of Israel and a warning of the king’s impending death.<\/p>\n<p>Ahaziah angrily sent a captain with 50 soldiers to arrest Elijah. They were consumed by fire from heaven at Elijah’s words. A second captain and another 50 soldiers were sent but met the same fate. The third captain who came begged the prophet to spare his and his soldiers’ lives. Elijah went with this captain and delivered God’s message to the king personally. The king would not recover but would die because he had inquired from pagan gods rather than from the true God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WarningtoJehoram\">Warning to Jehoram<\/p>\n<p>Elijah had been called primarily to minister to Israel, but he also delivered God’s word of warning to Jehoram, king of Judah, rebuking him for following Israel in its idolatry and for not walking in the godly ways of his father and grandfather (2 Chr 21:12-15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahsAscentintoHeaven\">Elijah’s Ascent into Heaven<\/p>\n<p>When the end of Elijah’s ministry drew near, Elisha refused to leave him. After a journey that took them to schools of the prophets at Bethel and Jericho, the two crossed the Jordan River miraculously; Elijah struck the waters with his mantle and they parted. Elisha requested a double portion (the firstborn’s share, cf. Dt 21:17) of his master’s spirit, for he desired to be Elijah’s full successor. Elisha knew his request was granted because he saw Elijah pass into the heavens in a whirlwind bearing a chariot and horses of fire. The young prophets who had accompanied Elisha searched in vain for Elijah in the mountains and valleys around the Jordan; God had taken his faithful prophet home. Elijah thus joined Enoch as the only other man in the Bible who did not experience death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahsMessageandMiracles\">Elijah’s Message and Miracles<\/p>\n<p>As the Baal worship of Tyre made inroads into Israel through Jezebel, Elijah was sent to check its spread by emphasizing again that Israel’s God was the only God of the whole earth. He began a vital work that was continued by Jehu, who slaughtered many of the Baal worshipers among Israel’s leaders (2 Kgs 10:18-28). Elijah’s specific mission was to destroy heathen worship in order to spare Israel, thus preparing the way for the prophets who were to follow in his spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles were prominent in Elijah’s ministry, given as a sign to confirm him as God’s spokesman and to turn Israel’s kings back to God. Some scholars have rejected these miracles or tried to explain them away. The OT, however, clearly testifies to their validity, and the NT affirms them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElijahandtheNewTestament\">Elijah and the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Malachi named Elijah as the forerunner of the “great and terrible day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” who will “turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers” (Mal 4:5-6). Jewish writers have often taken up the same theme in their literature: Elijah will “restore the tribes of Jacob” (Ecclus 48:10); he is mentioned in the Qumran <em>Manual of Discipline<\/em> of the Dead Sea Scrolls; he is the central sign of the resurrection of the dead according to the Mishnah, the collection of Jewish oral law; and he is the subject of songs sung at the close of the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Malachi’s prophecy was interpreted in the angelic annunciation to Zechariah as pointing to John the Baptist, who was to do the work of another Elijah (Lk 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span> “Elias”) and was confirmed by Jesus himself (Mt 11:14; 17:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus also alluded to Elijah’s sojourn in the land of Sidon (Lk 4:25-26), and the apostle Paul referred to the prophet’s experience at Mt Horeb (Rom 11:2). The apostle James used Elijah to illustrate what it means to be a righteous man and a man of prayer (Jas 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>Elijah appeared again on the Mt of Transfiguration with Moses as they discussed Jesus’ approaching death (Mt 17:1-13; Lk 9:28-36). Some Bible scholars believe that Elijah will return as one of the two witnesses of the end times (Rv 11:3-12), in fulfillment of Malachi’s prophecy that he is to come before the dreadful judgment day of God.<\/p>\n<li>2. Chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:27, <span>kjv<\/span> “Eliah”).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married a gentile wife (Ezr 10:21).<\/li>\n<li>4. Layman who also married a foreign wife (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELIJAH 1. Ninth-century BC prophet of Israel. Elijah’s name means “my God is the Lord”—appropriate for a stalwart opponent of Baal worship. The Scriptures give no information regarding his family background except that he was a Tishbite who probably came from the land of Gilead on the east bank of the Jordan River. He lived primarily during the reigns of kings Ahab (874–853 BC) and Ahaziah (853–852 BC) of Israel. The biblical account of Elijah runs from 1 Kings 17 to 2 Kings 2. Elijah was cal...","summary_en":"ELIJAH 1. Ninth-century BC prophet of Israel. Elijah’s name means “my God is the Lord”—appropriate for a stalwart opponent of Baal worship. The Scriptures give no information regarding his family background except that he was a Tishbite who probably came from the land of Gilead on the east bank of the Jordan River. He lived primarily during the reigns of kings Ahab (874–853 BC) and Ahaziah (853–852 BC) of Israel. The biblical account of Elijah runs from 1 Kings 17 to 2 Kings 2. Elijah was cal...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","summary_en":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86680,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","summary_en":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","summary_en":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:17<\/strong> <em>Elijah . . . prayed:<\/em> See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • <em>Three and a half years<\/em> (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","summary_en":"5:17 Elijah . . . prayed: See 1 Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46. • Three and a half years (see 1 Kgs 18:1; Luke 4:25) is a round figure, half of seven, which symbolizes a period of judgment (cp. Dan 12:7; Rev 11:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":7524,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Conversion","title_en":"Conversion","content_ro":"<h3>CONVERSION<\/h3>\n<p>Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign nations needed to turn to God for the first time (Ps 22:27). The characteristic feature is that one turns from wickedness (Jer 26:3; 36:3; Ez 18:21, 27; 33:9, 11), from a life of disloyalty to God to a life of obedience to God (Is 10:20-21; 14:2; Jer 34:15; Hos 14:4). Conversion means a change in inward orientation that finds expression in a changed lifestyle.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT John the Baptist begins the call to conversion (Mt 3:2; Mk 1:4; Lk 3:3), giving a prophetic call for people to change their minds (which is the root meaning of the Greek term) in the light of the nearness of God’s kingdom. This change of life must include a change in actions to prove its reality (Mt 3:8; Lk 3:8). Jesus preached the same message (Mt 4:17; Mk 1:15), adding that since the kingdom had arrived in his person, obedience to him was part of the good news of conversion. Yet it could also be bad news, for one would be damned if he failed to make this radical change (Mt 11:20; Lk 13:3-5). Conversion is radical but also simple, for it requires the simplicity of a child who commits his whole self, not the calculating self-protectiveness of the adult (Mt 18:3).<\/p>\n<p>Outside the Gospels, “conversion” is not a frequently used term except in the book of Acts, where it forms the call to commitment climaxing evangelistic sermons (2:38; 3:19; 8:22), describes the commitment of new Christians to the Lord (9:35; 11:21), and pictures the change of life as a turning from darkness to light (26:18-20). Later writers look back upon conversion (2 Cor 3:16), worry about Christians converting to paganism or Judaism (Gal 4:9), and call for the reconversion of Christians who have left the faith and are in danger of judgment (Jas 5:19-20; Rv 2:5, 16, 22; 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>As in the OT and in the preaching of John and Jesus, conversion has three factors. First, it is a turning <em>from<\/em> something, which includes specific sins, false gods, or simply a life lived for oneself (1 Thes 1:9; Rv 9:20-21; 16:11). Second, conversion is a product of the will of God and his gracious working in the world (Acts 11:18; Rom 2:4; 2 Cor 7:10; 2 Tm 2:25; 2 Pt 3:9). Third, conversion is a turning <em>to<\/em> someone, a commitment of one’s whole life to God in Jesus Christ (Acts 14:15; 1 Thes 1:9; 1 Pt 2:25). It is thus a total reorientation, whether spectacular or undramatic, sudden or gradual, emotional or calm, in which a person transfers his or her total allegiance to God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Faith; Grace; Justification, Justified; Repentance; Sanctification.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONVERSION<\/h3>\n<p>Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign nations needed to turn to God for the first time (Ps 22:27). The characteristic feature is that one turns from wickedness (Jer 26:3; 36:3; Ez 18:21, 27; 33:9, 11), from a life of disloyalty to God to a life of obedience to God (Is 10:20-21; 14:2; Jer 34:15; Hos 14:4). Conversion means a change in inward orientation that finds expression in a changed lifestyle.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT John the Baptist begins the call to conversion (Mt 3:2; Mk 1:4; Lk 3:3), giving a prophetic call for people to change their minds (which is the root meaning of the Greek term) in the light of the nearness of God’s kingdom. This change of life must include a change in actions to prove its reality (Mt 3:8; Lk 3:8). Jesus preached the same message (Mt 4:17; Mk 1:15), adding that since the kingdom had arrived in his person, obedience to him was part of the good news of conversion. Yet it could also be bad news, for one would be damned if he failed to make this radical change (Mt 11:20; Lk 13:3-5). Conversion is radical but also simple, for it requires the simplicity of a child who commits his whole self, not the calculating self-protectiveness of the adult (Mt 18:3).<\/p>\n<p>Outside the Gospels, “conversion” is not a frequently used term except in the book of Acts, where it forms the call to commitment climaxing evangelistic sermons (2:38; 3:19; 8:22), describes the commitment of new Christians to the Lord (9:35; 11:21), and pictures the change of life as a turning from darkness to light (26:18-20). Later writers look back upon conversion (2 Cor 3:16), worry about Christians converting to paganism or Judaism (Gal 4:9), and call for the reconversion of Christians who have left the faith and are in danger of judgment (Jas 5:19-20; Rv 2:5, 16, 22; 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>As in the OT and in the preaching of John and Jesus, conversion has three factors. First, it is a turning <em>from<\/em> something, which includes specific sins, false gods, or simply a life lived for oneself (1 Thes 1:9; Rv 9:20-21; 16:11). Second, conversion is a product of the will of God and his gracious working in the world (Acts 11:18; Rom 2:4; 2 Cor 7:10; 2 Tm 2:25; 2 Pt 3:9). Third, conversion is a turning <em>to<\/em> someone, a commitment of one’s whole life to God in Jesus Christ (Acts 14:15; 1 Thes 1:9; 1 Pt 2:25). It is thus a total reorientation, whether spectacular or undramatic, sudden or gradual, emotional or calm, in which a person transfers his or her total allegiance to God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Faith; Grace; Justification, Justified; Repentance; Sanctification.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONVERSION Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance. In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign n...","summary_en":"CONVERSION Total change in one’s direction in life or moral orientation. For Christians this means a change from an orientation that does not take God into account to one in which the person is submitted to Christ. Conversion is the result of repentance. In the OT conversion is basically a turning or returning from one’s former course of life toward the Lord, the God of Israel. Israel often had to return to their God (Dt 4:30), either as individuals (Ps 51) or as a nation (Jer 4:1); foreign n...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18479,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","summary_en":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86681,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","summary_en":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","summary_en":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19-20<\/strong> These verses end the letter as a bookend (<em>inclusio<\/em>) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","summary_en":"5:19-20 These verses end the letter as a bookend (inclusio) counterbalancing the exhortation to endurance in 1:2-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60827,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Purge the Evil","title_en":"Purge the Evil","content_ro":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","summary_en":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67795,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88453,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Purge the Evil","title_en":"Purge the Evil","content_ro":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","summary_en":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95421,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116079,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Purge the Evil","title_en":"Purge the Evil","content_ro":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","summary_en":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123047,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143705,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Purge the Evil","title_en":"Purge the Evil","content_ro":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Purge the Evil<\/h3>\n<p>Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2).<\/p>\n<p>God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:14; Heb 12:28-29). Such cleansing is meant to heal the community of believers and deter others from rebelling against the Lord (Deut 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, God’s judgment among his people was often immediate (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3; 16:1-50; Josh 7). God thus made his people keenly aware of his demand for obedience and of the penalty for those who did not comply.<\/p>\n<p>God’s retribution is now reserved for the future day of judgment, when the sins of the unrighteous will be exposed and judged (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Pet 4:5). However, some instances of calamity can be understood as God’s judgment on his disobedient children (e.g., Acts 5:1-11; see 1 Cor 11:27-30). It is still a “terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 19:1-2; Deut 9:3-6; 13:5; 17:2-13; Josh 7:1-26; 2 Chr 34:3-8; Isa 1:24-26; 4:2-6; 33:14; Ezek 20:32-38; Matt 18:8-9; Acts 5:1-11; Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 11:27-30; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 10:31; 12:28-29; Jas 5:19-20; 1 Pet 4:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","summary_en":"Purge the Evil Sin is so abhorrent to God that it cannot coexist with him. The same should be true for his people. God is holy, and he expects his people to reflect his holiness (Lev 11:45; 19:2). God required severe measures to remove sin from the covenant community. God offered forgiveness, but only for the truly repentant; those who hardened their hearts could expect God’s judgment—a purging process that devours sinners and their sins and leaves nothing behind (see Deut 9:3; 13:5; Isa 33:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150673,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\n<p>The coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":9094,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>DEATH<\/h3>\n<p>Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentView\">Old Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindicate his character prior to death (Jb 19:25-26). Only in Ecclesiastes 3:19-20 is outright pessimism expressed in the face of death—and that book probably shows considerable non-Hebraic influence.<\/p>\n<p>Death, although a natural ending to life, was never viewed as pleasant. Death cut one off from human community as well as from the presence and service of God. God may offer comfort in the face of death (Ps 73:23-28), but he is rarely portrayed as present with the dead, and that only in later biblical literature (Ps 139:8). For that reason, death was never viewed as the threshold to a better life.<\/p>\n<p>The relationship of sin to death is seen in the death penalty in the law of Moses. A serious offender was put to death. The punitive phrase “he shall be cut off” implied that although the nation went on living, the criminal was separated from it by death. The Israelites were warned that to disobey God’s commandments could bring premature death as a consequence of breaking fellowship with God (Dt 30:15-20; Jer 21:8; Ez 18:21-32).<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, as Jewish ideas of afterlife and resurrection developed more explicitly, so too did Jewish thinking about death. Death itself, not just a premature death, came to be seen as an evil result of sin (2 Esd 3:7; Ecclus 25:24). Sometimes all death is depicted as the result of the “first sin” (Adam and Eve’s disobedience). In other references, everyone dies as a result of his or her own sin. The first clear indication in Scripture of a resurrection of the dead and a final judgment or punishment occurs in the book of Daniel (Dn 12:2), one of the last OT books to be written. That teaching is echoed throughout the intertestamental period (2 Esd 7:31-44). During that time, it was believed that the soul survived death either in some immortal form (Wisd of Sol 3:4; 4:1; 4 Macc 16:13; 17:12) or awaiting the resurrection (1 Enoch 102). Some of those extrabiblical writings incorporated Greek ideas that the body was a burden to be gotten rid of—a notion foreign to Hebrew thought.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of resurrection and a life redeemed from death, however, set the stage for the NT revelation focusing on Christ’s resurrection and his conquest of death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentView\">New Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, death is seen more as a theological problem than as a personal event. Death goes beyond the simple ending of physical life, which the authors accept almost without difficulty. Death is seen as affecting every part of a person’s life. God alone is immortal, the source of all life in the world (Rom 4:17; 1 Tm 6:16). Only as human beings are properly related to God’s life can they live. But it has been unnatural for people to be in personal communion with the divine source of life since sin was introduced into the world (Rom 5:12, 17-18; 1 Cor 15:22). When Adam separated himself from God, that separation brought death. Each human being has followed in Adam’s footsteps (Rom 3:23; 5:12), bringing death for everyone as the absolutely necessary result (Rom 6:23; Heb 9:27). Death, then, is not merely something that happens to people at the end of their lives; it is also the living out of their lives apart from fellowship with God.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of death’s domination is vast. It affects every aspect of culture. All of human life is lived under the shadow of the fear of death (Rom 8:15; Heb 2:15). Death reigns over all that is “of the flesh” (Rom 8:6). Anyone not living in relationship to Christ lives in a state of death (Jn 3:16-18; 1 Jn 5:12). The devil, who rules the world, is the lord of death (Heb 2:14). Death is sometimes personified as a demonic power at large in the world but finally brought to bay by Christ himself, the only one who could master it (1 Cor 15:26-27; Rv 6:8; 20:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Christ died, was buried, and rose again on the third day (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-4; 1 Thes 4:14). Through that historic event, the power of death was broken. The NT in various ways expresses Christ’s subjection to death in payment for sin. He became obedient to death (Phil 2:8); he died as a sacrifice for the sins of all (1 Cor 5:7; 2 Cor 5:15); and he descended into hades, the place of the dead (1 Pt 3:18-19). The major point of all such passages is that he did not remain dead but defeated the devil, took the power (keys) of death, and ascended in victory (Heb 2:14-15; Rv 1:17-18). Jesus Christ worked not for his own benefit but for those who commit themselves to him (Mk 10:45; Rom 5:6-8; 1 Thes 5:9-10). By accepting a death he did not deserve, Christ has broken the power of death for his followers.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian is thus delivered from “this body of death” (Rom 7:24) by the power of Christ. Salvation comes through being baptized into Christ’s death (6:3-4), and “dying with Christ” to the world and the law (Rom 7:6; Gal 6:14; Col 2:20). That is, the death of Christ is counted by God as the believer’s death. The rebellious world’s sin (Rom 6:6) and self-idolatry (living for oneself, 2 Cor 5:14-15) become things of the past. The death of Jesus for his people is the means by which his life is given to them (4:10). The result is that believers are separated from the world just as they were once separated from God. From the world’s point of view, they are dead; Christ is their only life (Col 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle John expressed it somewhat differently. Jesus came into the world to give life to the dead (Jn 5:24). That life-giving will not happen at the resurrection; it is already happening. All who commit themselves to Jesus pass immediately from death to life. Or, to put it another way, those who keep (obey) his words will never see death (8:51-52). The point is that all who are outside Christ are already dead, and those trusting in Christ are already enjoying life. The radical difference between the Christian and the non-Christian is a difference between life and death.<\/p>\n<p>Naturally, the NT writers knew that Christians die; their problem was to find words to explain the difference from non-Christian death. Believers who die physically are said to be “dead in Christ” (1 Thes 4:16). Or they are not dead at all, but merely “asleep” (1 Cor 15:6, 18, 20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-15; cf. Jesus’ words, Jn 11:11-14). Although their bodies are dead, deceased believers are not separated from Christ; that is, they are not really dead. All the powers of death and hell cannot separate believers from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). For them, death is not a loss but a gain; it brings them closer to Christ (2 Cor 5:1-10; Phil 1:20-21). What is more, believers will share in Christ’s victory over physical death as well. Because he is the “firstfruits” of those rising from the dead (1 Cor 15:20; Col 1:18), those “in Christ” will rise “on the last day” to be with him, whole and complete.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, for those who do not belong to Christ, there is a final, total separation from God. At the last judgment, all whose names are not “written in the Book of Life” are consigned to a lake of fire, in the company of death itself and hades. That final separation from God is the “second death” (Rv 20:14). Christians, however, have been saved from death (Jas 5:20; 1 Jn 3:14). The second death has no power over those who are faithful to Christ (Rv 2:11; 20:6). Instead, they will live with God, in whose presence there can be no death, for he is life itself (21:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Intermediate State; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEATH<\/h3>\n<p>Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentView\">Old Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindicate his character prior to death (Jb 19:25-26). Only in Ecclesiastes 3:19-20 is outright pessimism expressed in the face of death—and that book probably shows considerable non-Hebraic influence.<\/p>\n<p>Death, although a natural ending to life, was never viewed as pleasant. Death cut one off from human community as well as from the presence and service of God. God may offer comfort in the face of death (Ps 73:23-28), but he is rarely portrayed as present with the dead, and that only in later biblical literature (Ps 139:8). For that reason, death was never viewed as the threshold to a better life.<\/p>\n<p>The relationship of sin to death is seen in the death penalty in the law of Moses. A serious offender was put to death. The punitive phrase “he shall be cut off” implied that although the nation went on living, the criminal was separated from it by death. The Israelites were warned that to disobey God’s commandments could bring premature death as a consequence of breaking fellowship with God (Dt 30:15-20; Jer 21:8; Ez 18:21-32).<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, as Jewish ideas of afterlife and resurrection developed more explicitly, so too did Jewish thinking about death. Death itself, not just a premature death, came to be seen as an evil result of sin (2 Esd 3:7; Ecclus 25:24). Sometimes all death is depicted as the result of the “first sin” (Adam and Eve’s disobedience). In other references, everyone dies as a result of his or her own sin. The first clear indication in Scripture of a resurrection of the dead and a final judgment or punishment occurs in the book of Daniel (Dn 12:2), one of the last OT books to be written. That teaching is echoed throughout the intertestamental period (2 Esd 7:31-44). During that time, it was believed that the soul survived death either in some immortal form (Wisd of Sol 3:4; 4:1; 4 Macc 16:13; 17:12) or awaiting the resurrection (1 Enoch 102). Some of those extrabiblical writings incorporated Greek ideas that the body was a burden to be gotten rid of—a notion foreign to Hebrew thought.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of resurrection and a life redeemed from death, however, set the stage for the NT revelation focusing on Christ’s resurrection and his conquest of death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentView\">New Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, death is seen more as a theological problem than as a personal event. Death goes beyond the simple ending of physical life, which the authors accept almost without difficulty. Death is seen as affecting every part of a person’s life. God alone is immortal, the source of all life in the world (Rom 4:17; 1 Tm 6:16). Only as human beings are properly related to God’s life can they live. But it has been unnatural for people to be in personal communion with the divine source of life since sin was introduced into the world (Rom 5:12, 17-18; 1 Cor 15:22). When Adam separated himself from God, that separation brought death. Each human being has followed in Adam’s footsteps (Rom 3:23; 5:12), bringing death for everyone as the absolutely necessary result (Rom 6:23; Heb 9:27). Death, then, is not merely something that happens to people at the end of their lives; it is also the living out of their lives apart from fellowship with God.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of death’s domination is vast. It affects every aspect of culture. All of human life is lived under the shadow of the fear of death (Rom 8:15; Heb 2:15). Death reigns over all that is “of the flesh” (Rom 8:6). Anyone not living in relationship to Christ lives in a state of death (Jn 3:16-18; 1 Jn 5:12). The devil, who rules the world, is the lord of death (Heb 2:14). Death is sometimes personified as a demonic power at large in the world but finally brought to bay by Christ himself, the only one who could master it (1 Cor 15:26-27; Rv 6:8; 20:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Christ died, was buried, and rose again on the third day (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-4; 1 Thes 4:14). Through that historic event, the power of death was broken. The NT in various ways expresses Christ’s subjection to death in payment for sin. He became obedient to death (Phil 2:8); he died as a sacrifice for the sins of all (1 Cor 5:7; 2 Cor 5:15); and he descended into hades, the place of the dead (1 Pt 3:18-19). The major point of all such passages is that he did not remain dead but defeated the devil, took the power (keys) of death, and ascended in victory (Heb 2:14-15; Rv 1:17-18). Jesus Christ worked not for his own benefit but for those who commit themselves to him (Mk 10:45; Rom 5:6-8; 1 Thes 5:9-10). By accepting a death he did not deserve, Christ has broken the power of death for his followers.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian is thus delivered from “this body of death” (Rom 7:24) by the power of Christ. Salvation comes through being baptized into Christ’s death (6:3-4), and “dying with Christ” to the world and the law (Rom 7:6; Gal 6:14; Col 2:20). That is, the death of Christ is counted by God as the believer’s death. The rebellious world’s sin (Rom 6:6) and self-idolatry (living for oneself, 2 Cor 5:14-15) become things of the past. The death of Jesus for his people is the means by which his life is given to them (4:10). The result is that believers are separated from the world just as they were once separated from God. From the world’s point of view, they are dead; Christ is their only life (Col 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle John expressed it somewhat differently. Jesus came into the world to give life to the dead (Jn 5:24). That life-giving will not happen at the resurrection; it is already happening. All who commit themselves to Jesus pass immediately from death to life. Or, to put it another way, those who keep (obey) his words will never see death (8:51-52). The point is that all who are outside Christ are already dead, and those trusting in Christ are already enjoying life. The radical difference between the Christian and the non-Christian is a difference between life and death.<\/p>\n<p>Naturally, the NT writers knew that Christians die; their problem was to find words to explain the difference from non-Christian death. Believers who die physically are said to be “dead in Christ” (1 Thes 4:16). Or they are not dead at all, but merely “asleep” (1 Cor 15:6, 18, 20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-15; cf. Jesus’ words, Jn 11:11-14). Although their bodies are dead, deceased believers are not separated from Christ; that is, they are not really dead. All the powers of death and hell cannot separate believers from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). For them, death is not a loss but a gain; it brings them closer to Christ (2 Cor 5:1-10; Phil 1:20-21). What is more, believers will share in Christ’s victory over physical death as well. Because he is the “firstfruits” of those rising from the dead (1 Cor 15:20; Col 1:18), those “in Christ” will rise “on the last day” to be with him, whole and complete.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, for those who do not belong to Christ, there is a final, total separation from God. At the last judgment, all whose names are not “written in the Book of Life” are consigned to a lake of fire, in the company of death itself and hades. That final separation from God is the “second death” (Rv 20:14). Christians, however, have been saved from death (Jas 5:20; 1 Jn 3:14). The second death has no power over those who are faithful to Christ (Rv 2:11; 20:6). Instead, they will live with God, in whose presence there can be no death, for he is life itself (21:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Intermediate State; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEATH Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death). Old Testament View In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindi...","summary_en":"DEATH Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death). Old Testament View In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindi...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18443,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36019,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Soul","title_en":"Soul","content_ro":"<h3>SOUL<\/h3>\n<p>Term translating the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> and the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nephesh<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Gnosticism also taught that the body was the prison house of the soul. Redemption comes to those initiated into the Gnostic secrets, leading to the release of the soul from the body.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical thought about the soul is different. In the OT the soul signifies that which is vital to humans in the broadest sense. The Hebrew and Greek words for soul often can be translated as “life”; occasionally, they can be used for the life of creatures (Gn 1:20; Lv 11:10). “Soul for soul” means “life for life” (Ex 21:23). In legal writings, a soul refers to a person in relation to a particular law (e.g., “If a soul shall sin . . . ,” Lv 4:2, <span>kjv<\/span>). When people were counted, they were counted as souls, that is, persons (Ex 1:5; Dt 10:22).<\/p>\n<p>In a narrower sense, the soul denotes human emotions and inner powers. People are called to love God with all their heart and soul (Dt 13:3). Knowledge and understanding (Ps 139:14), thought (1 Sm 20:3), love (1 Sm 18:1), and memory (Lam 3:20) all originate in the soul. Here the soul comes close to what today would be called the self, one’s person, personality, or ego.<\/p>\n<p>There is no suggestion in the OT of the transmigration of the soul as an immaterial, immortal entity. Man is a unity of body and soul—terms that describe not so much two separate entities in a person as much as one person from different standpoints. Hence, in the description of man’s creation in Genesis 2:7, the phrase “a living soul” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is better translated as “a living being.” The thought is not that men and women became <em>souls,<\/em> for clearly they had bodies. The use of the word in the original draws attention to the vital aspect of humans as “living beings.” The Hebrew view of the unity of the person may help to explain why people in the OT had only a shadowy view of life after death, for it would be difficult to conceive how people could exist without a body (Pss 16:10; 49:15; 88:3-12). Where hope of an afterlife exists, it is not because of the intrinsic character of the soul itself (as in Plato). It is grounded in confidence in the God who has power over death and the belief that communion with him cannot be broken even by death (Ex 3:6; 1 Sm 2:6; Jb 19:25-26; Pss 16:10-11; 73:24-25; Is 25:8; 26:19; Dn 12:2; Hos 6:1-3; 13:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the word for soul (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span>) has a range of meanings similar to that in the OT. Often it is synonymous with life itself. Followers of Jesus are said to have risked their lives (souls) for his sake (Acts 15:26; cf. Jn 13:37; Rom 16:4; Phil 2:30). As the Son of Man, Jesus came not to be served but to serve and to give his life (soul) as a ransom for many (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45). As the Good Shepherd, he lays down his life (soul) for the sheep (Jn 10:14, 17-18). In Luke 14:26 the condition of discipleship is to hate one’s soul, that is, to be willing to deny oneself to the point of losing one’s life for Christ’s sake (cf. Lk 9:23; Rv 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently “soul” can mean “person” (Acts 2:43; 3:23; 7:14; Rom 2:9; 13:1; 1 Pt 3:20). The expression “every living soul” (Rv 16:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) reflects the vital aspect of living beings. As in the OT, the soul can denote not only the vital aspect of the person on the physical level, but it can also connote one’s emotional energies. It denotes the person himself, the seat of his or her emotions, one’s inmost being. For example, when Jesus was agonizing about his death, he spoke of his soul being crushed (Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34; cf. Ps 42:6). In an entirely different setting, Jesus promised rest to the souls of those who come to him (Mt 11:29). Here, as elsewhere, “soul” denotes the essential person (cf. Lk 2:35; 2 Cor 1:23; 2 Thes 2:8; 3 Jn 1:2).<\/p>\n<p>Several passages place the soul alongside the spirit. Luke 1:46 is probably a case of Hebrew poetic parallelism, which expresses the same idea in two different ways. Both terms denote Mary as a person in the depths of her being. Similarly, in Hebrews 4:12, dividing the soul and the spirit is a graphic way of saying how the Word of God probes the inmost recesses of our being. The prayer in 1 Thessalonians 5:23—that the readers may be kept blameless in spirit, soul, and body—is a way of speaking of the whole being. Here soul probably suggests physical existence, as in Genesis 2:7 and 1 Corinthians 2:14, whereas spirit may imply the higher or “spiritual” side of life.<\/p>\n<p>In other passages, the emotions, the will, and even the mind come to the fore, though in each case there is the accompanying idea of a person’s inmost being. People are to love God with all the soul (Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; cf. Dt 6:5). The expression “from the soul” (Eph 6:6; Col 3:23) means “from the heart,” with all one’s being. In Philippians 1:27 believers are called to be of one mind (cf. Acts 4:32; 14:2). Passages that speak of the soul in relation to salvation include Matthew 10:28; Luke 12:5; Hebrews 6:19; 10:39; 12:3; 13:7; James 1:21; 5:20; 1 Peter 1:9, 22-23; 2:25; 4:19; and Revelation 6:9; 20:4. Such passages speak of the soul either to stress the essential human being, as distinct from the physical body, or to express man’s continued existence with God prior to the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Man; Spirit of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOUL<\/h3>\n<p>Term translating the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> and the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nephesh<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Gnosticism also taught that the body was the prison house of the soul. Redemption comes to those initiated into the Gnostic secrets, leading to the release of the soul from the body.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical thought about the soul is different. In the OT the soul signifies that which is vital to humans in the broadest sense. The Hebrew and Greek words for soul often can be translated as “life”; occasionally, they can be used for the life of creatures (Gn 1:20; Lv 11:10). “Soul for soul” means “life for life” (Ex 21:23). In legal writings, a soul refers to a person in relation to a particular law (e.g., “If a soul shall sin . . . ,” Lv 4:2, <span>kjv<\/span>). When people were counted, they were counted as souls, that is, persons (Ex 1:5; Dt 10:22).<\/p>\n<p>In a narrower sense, the soul denotes human emotions and inner powers. People are called to love God with all their heart and soul (Dt 13:3). Knowledge and understanding (Ps 139:14), thought (1 Sm 20:3), love (1 Sm 18:1), and memory (Lam 3:20) all originate in the soul. Here the soul comes close to what today would be called the self, one’s person, personality, or ego.<\/p>\n<p>There is no suggestion in the OT of the transmigration of the soul as an immaterial, immortal entity. Man is a unity of body and soul—terms that describe not so much two separate entities in a person as much as one person from different standpoints. Hence, in the description of man’s creation in Genesis 2:7, the phrase “a living soul” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is better translated as “a living being.” The thought is not that men and women became <em>souls,<\/em> for clearly they had bodies. The use of the word in the original draws attention to the vital aspect of humans as “living beings.” The Hebrew view of the unity of the person may help to explain why people in the OT had only a shadowy view of life after death, for it would be difficult to conceive how people could exist without a body (Pss 16:10; 49:15; 88:3-12). Where hope of an afterlife exists, it is not because of the intrinsic character of the soul itself (as in Plato). It is grounded in confidence in the God who has power over death and the belief that communion with him cannot be broken even by death (Ex 3:6; 1 Sm 2:6; Jb 19:25-26; Pss 16:10-11; 73:24-25; Is 25:8; 26:19; Dn 12:2; Hos 6:1-3; 13:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the word for soul (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span>) has a range of meanings similar to that in the OT. Often it is synonymous with life itself. Followers of Jesus are said to have risked their lives (souls) for his sake (Acts 15:26; cf. Jn 13:37; Rom 16:4; Phil 2:30). As the Son of Man, Jesus came not to be served but to serve and to give his life (soul) as a ransom for many (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45). As the Good Shepherd, he lays down his life (soul) for the sheep (Jn 10:14, 17-18). In Luke 14:26 the condition of discipleship is to hate one’s soul, that is, to be willing to deny oneself to the point of losing one’s life for Christ’s sake (cf. Lk 9:23; Rv 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently “soul” can mean “person” (Acts 2:43; 3:23; 7:14; Rom 2:9; 13:1; 1 Pt 3:20). The expression “every living soul” (Rv 16:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) reflects the vital aspect of living beings. As in the OT, the soul can denote not only the vital aspect of the person on the physical level, but it can also connote one’s emotional energies. It denotes the person himself, the seat of his or her emotions, one’s inmost being. For example, when Jesus was agonizing about his death, he spoke of his soul being crushed (Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34; cf. Ps 42:6). In an entirely different setting, Jesus promised rest to the souls of those who come to him (Mt 11:29). Here, as elsewhere, “soul” denotes the essential person (cf. Lk 2:35; 2 Cor 1:23; 2 Thes 2:8; 3 Jn 1:2).<\/p>\n<p>Several passages place the soul alongside the spirit. Luke 1:46 is probably a case of Hebrew poetic parallelism, which expresses the same idea in two different ways. Both terms denote Mary as a person in the depths of her being. Similarly, in Hebrews 4:12, dividing the soul and the spirit is a graphic way of saying how the Word of God probes the inmost recesses of our being. The prayer in 1 Thessalonians 5:23—that the readers may be kept blameless in spirit, soul, and body—is a way of speaking of the whole being. Here soul probably suggests physical existence, as in Genesis 2:7 and 1 Corinthians 2:14, whereas spirit may imply the higher or “spiritual” side of life.<\/p>\n<p>In other passages, the emotions, the will, and even the mind come to the fore, though in each case there is the accompanying idea of a person’s inmost being. People are to love God with all the soul (Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; cf. Dt 6:5). The expression “from the soul” (Eph 6:6; Col 3:23) means “from the heart,” with all one’s being. In Philippians 1:27 believers are called to be of one mind (cf. Acts 4:32; 14:2). Passages that speak of the soul in relation to salvation include Matthew 10:28; Luke 12:5; Hebrews 6:19; 10:39; 12:3; 13:7; James 1:21; 5:20; 1 Peter 1:9, 22-23; 2:25; 4:19; and Revelation 6:9; 20:4. Such passages speak of the soul either to stress the essential human being, as distinct from the physical body, or to express man’s continued existence with God prior to the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Man; Spirit of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOUL Term translating the Greek word psuche and the Hebrew nephesh. The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of ...","summary_en":"SOUL Term translating the Greek word psuche and the Hebrew nephesh. The Greek philosopher Plato (fourth century BC) perceived the soul as the eternal element in humans; whereas the body perishes at death, the soul is indestructible. At death the soul enters another body; if it has been wicked in this life, it may be sent into an inferior human being or even an animal or bird. By means of transmigration from one body to another, the soul is eventually purged of evil. In the early centuries of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","summary_en":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":86682,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","summary_en":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","summary_en":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iacov 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iacov 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> To <em>save<\/em> a sinner <em>from death<\/em> refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","summary_en":"5:20 To save a sinner from death refers not merely to physical death but to eternal death, the punishment for departing from the truth of the Good News of Jesus Christ (see 1:12, 15; cp. Heb 6:4-8). If the sinful person listens and repents, eternal punishment will be averted (see also Gal 6:1; Jude 1:22-24).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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