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{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":4750,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17080,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings","content_ro":"<h3>“I AM” SAYINGS<\/h3>\n<p>Self-proclamations made by Jesus in the Gospel of John.<\/p>\n<p>One of the distinctive elements of the teaching of Jesus is the way Jesus expresses important truths in terms of his own personal character and mission. These statements begin with the words “I am” and then continue to express a deep theological thought in terms of metaphorical statement. This method of teaching is preserved for us in the Gospel of John alone. While Matthew, Mark, and Luke emphasize Jesus’ mode of teaching in the form of the parable, John pictures Jesus as teaching in discourses. These discourses often find an “I am” statement as the key expression of the central thought.<\/p>\n<p>The “I am” statements found in the Gospel of John are the bread of life or the living bread (6:35, 48, 51), the light of the world (8:12; see also 9:5), the gate (10:7, 9), the good shepherd (10:11, 14), the resurrection and the life (11:25), the way, the truth and the life (14:6), and the vine (15:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Each of these statements follows a basic pattern. They are written as metaphors in which one of the key elements is to be the Christ expressed as “I am.” The meaning of the metaphor is to be drawn chiefly from the explanatory statement connected with it. Thus when Jesus says, “I am the light of the world,” the explanatory statement follows, “So if you follow me, you won’t be stumbling through the darkness, for living light will flood your path” (<span>tlb<\/span>). This latter statement is intended to help a person interpret the metaphor. Most statements have such interpretive elements joined to them.<\/p>\n<p>These metaphorical statements often complement Jesus’ miracles. The statement and a miracle each contribute to the understanding of the other. Thus when Jesus proclaims that he is the light of the world, he proceeds to bring sight to the blind man. The controversy that follows between the blind man and the Pharisees shows that the man has received spiritual sight as well as physical. Before Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead, he tells Martha that he is the resurrection and the life. The raising of Lazarus is intended to show Jesus’ power to give life now and to demonstrate his power to do what he proclaimed he was able to do. After Jesus had fed the 5,000, he declared that he was the living bread that had come from heaven. Each of these miracles is interpreted by the metaphorical “I am” statement. Each statement is intended to give the miracle meaning for the ministry of Jesus. They show us that Jesus’ miracles were not just acts of power or mercy but actions demonstrating the meaning of his ministry and teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Many theologians consider the “I am” formula to reflect an identification of deity found in the OT (see God, Names of). When Moses was called, he asked God to identify himself in such a way that Moses might gain acceptance from the Hebrew people. God revealed himself to Moses as the great “<span>I Am<\/span>.” Moses was to tell the Israelites that “<span>I Am<\/span> sent me to you” (Ex 3:13-14). From this “<span>I Am<\/span>” the name Yahweh is derived. Many believe that Jesus used this same formula from the OT to relate his deity. The “I am” statements in John’s Gospel help the reader identify Jesus as divine, as God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>“I AM” SAYINGS<\/h3>\n<p>Self-proclamations made by Jesus in the Gospel of John.<\/p>\n<p>One of the distinctive elements of the teaching of Jesus is the way Jesus expresses important truths in terms of his own personal character and mission. These statements begin with the words “I am” and then continue to express a deep theological thought in terms of metaphorical statement. This method of teaching is preserved for us in the Gospel of John alone. While Matthew, Mark, and Luke emphasize Jesus’ mode of teaching in the form of the parable, John pictures Jesus as teaching in discourses. These discourses often find an “I am” statement as the key expression of the central thought.<\/p>\n<p>The “I am” statements found in the Gospel of John are the bread of life or the living bread (6:35, 48, 51), the light of the world (8:12; see also 9:5), the gate (10:7, 9), the good shepherd (10:11, 14), the resurrection and the life (11:25), the way, the truth and the life (14:6), and the vine (15:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Each of these statements follows a basic pattern. They are written as metaphors in which one of the key elements is to be the Christ expressed as “I am.” The meaning of the metaphor is to be drawn chiefly from the explanatory statement connected with it. Thus when Jesus says, “I am the light of the world,” the explanatory statement follows, “So if you follow me, you won’t be stumbling through the darkness, for living light will flood your path” (<span>tlb<\/span>). This latter statement is intended to help a person interpret the metaphor. Most statements have such interpretive elements joined to them.<\/p>\n<p>These metaphorical statements often complement Jesus’ miracles. The statement and a miracle each contribute to the understanding of the other. Thus when Jesus proclaims that he is the light of the world, he proceeds to bring sight to the blind man. The controversy that follows between the blind man and the Pharisees shows that the man has received spiritual sight as well as physical. Before Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead, he tells Martha that he is the resurrection and the life. The raising of Lazarus is intended to show Jesus’ power to give life now and to demonstrate his power to do what he proclaimed he was able to do. After Jesus had fed the 5,000, he declared that he was the living bread that had come from heaven. Each of these miracles is interpreted by the metaphorical “I am” statement. Each statement is intended to give the miracle meaning for the ministry of Jesus. They show us that Jesus’ miracles were not just acts of power or mercy but actions demonstrating the meaning of his ministry and teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Many theologians consider the “I am” formula to reflect an identification of deity found in the OT (see God, Names of). When Moses was called, he asked God to identify himself in such a way that Moses might gain acceptance from the Hebrew people. God revealed himself to Moses as the great “<span>I Am<\/span>.” Moses was to tell the Israelites that “<span>I Am<\/span> sent me to you” (Ex 3:13-14). From this “<span>I Am<\/span>” the name Yahweh is derived. Many believe that Jesus used this same formula from the OT to relate his deity. The “I am” statements in John’s Gospel help the reader identify Jesus as divine, as God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I AM” SAYINGS Self-proclamations made by Jesus in the Gospel of John. One of the distinctive elements of the teaching of Jesus is the way Jesus expresses important truths in terms of his own personal character and mission. These statements begin with the words “I am” and then continue to express a deep theological thought in terms of metaphorical statement. This method of teaching is preserved for us in the Gospel of John alone. While Matthew, Mark, and Luke emphasize Jesus’ mode of teaching...","summary_en":"“I AM” SAYINGS Self-proclamations made by Jesus in the Gospel of John. One of the distinctive elements of the teaching of Jesus is the way Jesus expresses important truths in terms of his own personal character and mission. These statements begin with the words “I am” and then continue to express a deep theological thought in terms of metaphorical statement. This method of teaching is preserved for us in the Gospel of John alone. While Matthew, Mark, and Luke emphasize Jesus’ mode of teaching...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20230,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel of John","title_en":"Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","summary_en":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30762,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38019,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Vineyard Vines","title_en":"Vineyard Vines","content_ro":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","summary_ro":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","summary_en":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40230,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","title_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah:<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<li>1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span> shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Messiah, who provides the harvest, establishes holiness, executes judgment, and creates “glory” in the land. (b) Isaiah 28:5 describes the Lord in similar terms, making a messianic interpretation of Isaiah 4:2 more probable. (c) Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15, which seem to be commentaries on Isaiah 4:2, interpret it to refer to the Messiah. Mention of a righteous remnant illustrates a concept developing along with the “branch” imagery and amplifying its meaning. The branch will become the “beauty and glory” of the remnant of Israel and will wreak destruction on apostate Israel (Is 4:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Isaiah 11:1 adds a Davidic element to Isaiah 4:2, since Jesse was David’s father. The “shoot” grew out of the “stump of Jesse,” that is, the royal line of David. The Davidic line is pictured as a fallen dynasty, a tree cut down (the passage probably mentions Jesse rather than David to stress a lowly origin). The stump remains, however, and there is still life within it. That stump is insignificant in contrast to the mighty forest of Assyria, but the Lord will level that forest (Is 10:15-19, 33-34) and bring forth from Jesse’s stump a fruitful shoot who will recover the Israelite remnant (Is 11:4, 11-12), destroy their adversaries, and reign in wisdom through the Spirit of the Lord.<\/li>\n<li>3. Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:15 contrast the righteous reign of the Branch with the evil leadership of King Zedekiah. In both passages a remnant is pictured under the metaphor of a flock gathered back to their fold under caring shepherds (Jer 23:3-4; cf. 33:12-13). The shepherds are ruled by the Branch, who is given the title “The <span>Lord<\/span> is our righteousness” (33:16). That phrase in Hebrew is a deliberate wordplay on the name “Zedekiah” (meaning “the Lord is my vindication”). Zedekiah was righteous in name but not in reign. The Branch of the Lord, in contrast, will rule justly.<\/li>\n<li>4. Zechariah 3:8 and 6:12 apply the branch metaphor in a different context—that of the postexilic task of rebuilding the temple. Zechariah described Joshua the high priest as a symbol of the future “servant- Branch” to be sent from the Lord. The Branch is seen as performing a priestly function in restoring righteous worship to the land. The royal line would be reinstated and the glories of the priestly line would also be reconstituted in the Branch. The servant of the Branch is probably taken from Isaiah’s servant songs, where similar language is used (Is 53:2). Zechariah specifically related the priestly activity to rebuilding the temple. Zerubbabel had earlier been given the task of completing the literal building (Zec 4:7-9), so the allusion must go beyond that to the “spiritual temple” to come. (Since Zerubbabel’s name means “shoot of Babylon,” the connection seems deliberate). Finally, Zechariah combines the two messianic aspects of the Branch: “He will build the <span>Lord<\/span>’s Temple, and he will receive royal honor and will rule as king from his throne. He will also serve as priest from his throne, and there will be perfect harmony between the two” (6:13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>“Branch” is never used as a title in the NT. Yet there are hints of that concept’s influence, as in the familiar “vine and branches” metaphor (Jn 15:1-8), in the use of palm branches at Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (12:13; cf. Mk 11:8 and parallels), and possibly in the origin of the titles “Righteous One” (Acts 3:14; 7:52; cf. Jas 5:6) and “Just One” (Acts 22:14). Some have also taken an enigmatic reference to Christ, “He shall be called a Nazarene” as an allusion to the “branch” because in Isaiah 11:1 and other references <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">netzer<\/span> is similar to “Nazarene.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","summary_en":"The Branch: A Symbol for the Messiah In the following key passages, the “branch” is used as a symbol for the Messiah: 1. Isaiah 4:2-6 is the first occurrence of “branch” as a title: “In that day the branch of the Lord shall be beautiful and glorious, and the fruit of the land shall be the pride and glory of the survivors of Israel” (rsv). Many scholars interpret “branch” here to mean the Messiah for several reasons: (a) The whole tenor of the chapter makes it likely that it refers to the Mess...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56652,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","summary_en":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56653,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","summary_en":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84278,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","summary_en":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84279,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","summary_en":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","summary_en":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","summary_en":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1-27<\/strong> Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","summary_en":"15:1-27 Jesus prepared his disciples for his departure, instructing them to remain in close fellowship with him. The image of a grapevine illustrates both intimacy and fruitfulness. To sustain genuine spiritual life in the world, believers must remain intimately connected to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:1<\/strong> <em>I am:<\/em> See study note on 6:35. The <em>grapevine<\/em> and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is <em>the true grapevine<\/em> and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","summary_en":"15:1 I am: See study note on 6:35. The grapevine and the vineyard traditionally represented God’s people, planted and tended by him in Israel (Ps 80:8-18; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; 12:10-11; Ezek 15:1-5; Hos 10:1-2). When Jesus used this image, he made an important departure: He declared that he is the true grapevine and that a relationship with God requires attachment to him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61590,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65872,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","title_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","summary_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65993,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66030,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89216,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93498,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","title_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","summary_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93619,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93656,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116842,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121124,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","title_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","summary_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121245,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121282,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144468,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148750,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","title_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>“Belief” in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun <em>faith<\/em> that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb <em>believe<\/em> to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John, the verb translated “believe” is often followed by the Greek preposition <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eis<\/span> (“into”). No parallel exists for this combination in ancient Greek usage. For John, faith is not a status, but an investment in the person of Jesus. Faith means accepting who Jesus is and what he claims to be. Faith constitutes a commitment to let his call change the way we live. Faith is the work God wants from us (John 6:29), demonstrated as we abide in Jesus’ word, as we love him, and as we obey his commands (John 8:31; 15:1-17; see 1 Jn 5:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Isa 28:16; Mark 1:15; 9:23-24; John 1:12-13; 3:10-18; 5:24; 6:35-36; 7:38; 9:35-38; 11:25-27; 12:37; 20:25-31; Acts 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 10:9-10; Heb 4:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","summary_en":"“Belief” in the Gospel of John Believing occupies a central place in John’s Gospel. John does not use the noun faith that appears frequently elsewhere in the New Testament (e.g., see Matt 8:8-10; Mark 11:22; Acts 20:21; Rom 1:17; 3:27-31; 4:3-5; Heb 11:1-39; Jas 2:14-24; 1 Pet 1:5-7). John prefers the verb believe to underscore that faith is not simply a static dogma, but is dynamic, requiring action. In John’s Gospel, “believing” in Jesus is the trait of all true disciples. In the Gospel of ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148871,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148908,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":4754,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38007,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Vineyard Vines","title_en":"Vineyard Vines","content_ro":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","summary_ro":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","summary_en":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56654,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:2","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","summary_en":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84280,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:2","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","summary_en":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:2","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","summary_en":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:2","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:2-3<\/strong> Gardeners cut away dead <em>branches<\/em> and trim healthy branches so they will produce more <em>fruit<\/em>. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","summary_en":"15:2-3 Gardeners cut away dead branches and trim healthy branches so they will produce more fruit. Fruitfulness is the result of life-giving connection to the vine.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65236,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92862,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120488,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148114,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":38619,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Word, Word of God, Words of God","title_en":"Word, Word of God, Words of God","content_ro":"<h3>WORD, WORD OF GOD, WORDS OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>A “word” is an expression that communicates. On the level of human communication, “words “usually refer to verbal expression. When God “spoke” over the centuries, though, he communicated in various ways (Heb 1:1), culminating in that epitome of all divine expression, Jesus Christ, his Son.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheImportanceofWords\">The Importance of Words<\/p>\n<p>In a mainly nonliterary society the dependability of the spoken word was all-important in law, trade, religion, marriage, and reputation. Receipts, agreements, and records had little usefulness. Personal integrity and sincere speech were essential to communication and, for most people, to self-expression and stable relationships. The words of poets, prophets, storytellers, and instructors were carefully preserved.<\/p>\n<p>Words were diligently tested. Foolish words, flattery, deceit, words of enticement, lies, rumor, scandal, and blasphemous speech were all recognized as evil. The oath had to be inviolable in commercial, judicial, and civic affairs. The spoken blessing had power within itself and could not be withdrawn (Gn 27:30-38; Mt 10:12-13); so also the vow (Jgs 11:34-35) and the curse (Gn 27:12-13). Equally powerful was the word of command—of priestly, judicial, or royal authority (Eccl 8:4).<\/p>\n<p>This estimate of human words lingers in the NT. The word reveals the inner self, and so every careless, hurtful, deceitful word will be judged (Mt 12:34-37; 5:22), as will blasphemy (Lk 12:10). Paul (Eph 4:29; 5:4) and James (Jas 3:1-12) preserve this Hebrew reverence for the spoken word.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheWordsofGod\">The Words of God<\/p>\n<p>God’s spoken word has been preserved in Scripture. His word came to and through the prophets (1 Kgs 12:22; 1 Chr 17:3; cf. Lk 3:2), who spoke and acted “by the word of the Lord.” His word also came in the law, which God “spoke” on Sinai (Ex 20:1); hence, “statutes,” “commandments,” and “precepts” are synonyms for God’s “word” (e.g., Ps 119).<\/p>\n<p>Periods when no such divine communication came constituted “famine” (1 Sm 3:1; Am 8:11). Mingled with warnings and injunctions were divine promises. All God’s words were dependable (Is 31:2), firmly fixed in heaven (Ps 119:89; Is 40:8), and backed up by divine oath (Jer 1:12; Ps 110:4; Ez 12:25, 28). A word, expressing the divine mind, was not threatening or burdensome; it was a delight, hope, joy, and protection against sin (Pss 1; 119; Jer 15:16). Men can live by it (Dt 8:3; Mt 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word has power to execute his will. It will not return to him “empty” but accomplish that which he purposes (Is 55:11). By his speech alone, God created the world, and his word upholds it (Gn 1; Ps 33:6; cf. Heb 1:2; 11:3; 2 Pt 3:5). Eventually, this divine revelation was put into writing, which makes the Bible also “the word of God” (Mk 7:13; cf. Lk 16:29-31; Jn 5:39).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus spoke the word of God. He was “mighty in word” (Lk 24:19); he taught with authority (Mk 1:22, 27), exercising power over the sea, disease, demons, and death (Mt 8:8, 13). His “word of the kingdom” is the living seed, which, planted in the good soil of receptive hearts, bears fruit for God (Mt 13:19; Mk 4:14). The word that Christ gives to his disciples cleanses them and frees them (Jn 8:31; 12:48; 15:3; 17:14). The word of faith the church preaches (Rom 10:8-9, 17) is variously described as the word of salvation, the word of grace, the word of reconciliation, the word of the gospel, the word of righteousness, and the word of life.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheWordofGod\">The Word of God<\/p>\n<p>Deliberately recalling Genesis 1, the Gospel writer, John, named the Son of God “the Word.” As the Word, the Son of God fully conveys and communicates God. The Greek term is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span><em>;<\/em> it was used in two ways by the Greeks. The word might be thought of as remaining within a person, when it denoted his thought or reason. Or it might refer to the word going forth from a person, when it denoted the expression of his thought, i.e., speech. As a philosophical term, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span> denoted the principle of the universe, even the creative energy that generated the universe. In both the Jewish conception and the Greek, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span> was associated with the idea of beginnings—the world began through the origination and instrumentality of the Word (Gn 1:3ff., where the expression “God said” is used again and again). John may have had these ideas in mind, but most likely he originated a new term to identify the Son of God as the divine expression in human form (Jn 1:14). He is the image of the invisible God (Col 1:15), the express image of God’s substance (Heb 1:3). In the Godhead, the Son functions as the revealer of God and the reality of God, which is a central theme throughout John’s Gospel. John used a similar title in his first epistle: “the Word of life” (1 Jn 1:1-3). And in Revelation 19:11-16, Jesus is presented as the King of kings and Lord of lords, who has a name on him: “the Word of God.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible; John, Gospel of; Logos; Revelation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORD, WORD OF GOD, WORDS OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>A “word” is an expression that communicates. On the level of human communication, “words “usually refer to verbal expression. When God “spoke” over the centuries, though, he communicated in various ways (Heb 1:1), culminating in that epitome of all divine expression, Jesus Christ, his Son.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheImportanceofWords\">The Importance of Words<\/p>\n<p>In a mainly nonliterary society the dependability of the spoken word was all-important in law, trade, religion, marriage, and reputation. Receipts, agreements, and records had little usefulness. Personal integrity and sincere speech were essential to communication and, for most people, to self-expression and stable relationships. The words of poets, prophets, storytellers, and instructors were carefully preserved.<\/p>\n<p>Words were diligently tested. Foolish words, flattery, deceit, words of enticement, lies, rumor, scandal, and blasphemous speech were all recognized as evil. The oath had to be inviolable in commercial, judicial, and civic affairs. The spoken blessing had power within itself and could not be withdrawn (Gn 27:30-38; Mt 10:12-13); so also the vow (Jgs 11:34-35) and the curse (Gn 27:12-13). Equally powerful was the word of command—of priestly, judicial, or royal authority (Eccl 8:4).<\/p>\n<p>This estimate of human words lingers in the NT. The word reveals the inner self, and so every careless, hurtful, deceitful word will be judged (Mt 12:34-37; 5:22), as will blasphemy (Lk 12:10). Paul (Eph 4:29; 5:4) and James (Jas 3:1-12) preserve this Hebrew reverence for the spoken word.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheWordsofGod\">The Words of God<\/p>\n<p>God’s spoken word has been preserved in Scripture. His word came to and through the prophets (1 Kgs 12:22; 1 Chr 17:3; cf. Lk 3:2), who spoke and acted “by the word of the Lord.” His word also came in the law, which God “spoke” on Sinai (Ex 20:1); hence, “statutes,” “commandments,” and “precepts” are synonyms for God’s “word” (e.g., Ps 119).<\/p>\n<p>Periods when no such divine communication came constituted “famine” (1 Sm 3:1; Am 8:11). Mingled with warnings and injunctions were divine promises. All God’s words were dependable (Is 31:2), firmly fixed in heaven (Ps 119:89; Is 40:8), and backed up by divine oath (Jer 1:12; Ps 110:4; Ez 12:25, 28). A word, expressing the divine mind, was not threatening or burdensome; it was a delight, hope, joy, and protection against sin (Pss 1; 119; Jer 15:16). Men can live by it (Dt 8:3; Mt 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word has power to execute his will. It will not return to him “empty” but accomplish that which he purposes (Is 55:11). By his speech alone, God created the world, and his word upholds it (Gn 1; Ps 33:6; cf. Heb 1:2; 11:3; 2 Pt 3:5). Eventually, this divine revelation was put into writing, which makes the Bible also “the word of God” (Mk 7:13; cf. Lk 16:29-31; Jn 5:39).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus spoke the word of God. He was “mighty in word” (Lk 24:19); he taught with authority (Mk 1:22, 27), exercising power over the sea, disease, demons, and death (Mt 8:8, 13). His “word of the kingdom” is the living seed, which, planted in the good soil of receptive hearts, bears fruit for God (Mt 13:19; Mk 4:14). The word that Christ gives to his disciples cleanses them and frees them (Jn 8:31; 12:48; 15:3; 17:14). The word of faith the church preaches (Rom 10:8-9, 17) is variously described as the word of salvation, the word of grace, the word of reconciliation, the word of the gospel, the word of righteousness, and the word of life.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheWordofGod\">The Word of God<\/p>\n<p>Deliberately recalling Genesis 1, the Gospel writer, John, named the Son of God “the Word.” As the Word, the Son of God fully conveys and communicates God. The Greek term is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span><em>;<\/em> it was used in two ways by the Greeks. The word might be thought of as remaining within a person, when it denoted his thought or reason. Or it might refer to the word going forth from a person, when it denoted the expression of his thought, i.e., speech. As a philosophical term, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span> denoted the principle of the universe, even the creative energy that generated the universe. In both the Jewish conception and the Greek, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">logos<\/span> was associated with the idea of beginnings—the world began through the origination and instrumentality of the Word (Gn 1:3ff., where the expression “God said” is used again and again). John may have had these ideas in mind, but most likely he originated a new term to identify the Son of God as the divine expression in human form (Jn 1:14). He is the image of the invisible God (Col 1:15), the express image of God’s substance (Heb 1:3). In the Godhead, the Son functions as the revealer of God and the reality of God, which is a central theme throughout John’s Gospel. John used a similar title in his first epistle: “the Word of life” (1 Jn 1:1-3). And in Revelation 19:11-16, Jesus is presented as the King of kings and Lord of lords, who has a name on him: “the Word of God.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible; John, Gospel of; Logos; Revelation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORD, WORD OF GOD, WORDS OF GOD A “word” is an expression that communicates. On the level of human communication, “words “usually refer to verbal expression. When God “spoke” over the centuries, though, he communicated in various ways (Heb 1:1), culminating in that epitome of all divine expression, Jesus Christ, his Son. The Importance of Words In a mainly nonliterary society the dependability of the spoken word was all-important in law, trade, religion, marriage, and reputation. Receipts, ag...","summary_en":"WORD, WORD OF GOD, WORDS OF GOD A “word” is an expression that communicates. On the level of human communication, “words “usually refer to verbal expression. When God “spoke” over the centuries, though, he communicated in various ways (Heb 1:1), culminating in that epitome of all divine expression, Jesus Christ, his Son. The Importance of Words In a mainly nonliterary society the dependability of the spoken word was all-important in law, trade, religion, marriage, and reputation. Receipts, ag...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":7251,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Commandment, the New","title_en":"Commandment, the New","content_ro":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","summary_en":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29770,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perseverance","title_en":"Perseverance","content_ro":"<h3>PERSEVERANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nourished a patient faith (Jer 32:1-15; Hos 3:4-5; Jl 2:28-29; Hb 2:1-3; Dn 12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The NT everywhere urges similar perseverance. Among several Greek expressions, the usual word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">proskartereo<\/span><em>,<\/em> has the root meaning “to attend continually, adhere steadfastly” (Mk 3:9; Acts 8:13; 10:7; Rom 13:6), and is variously translated “devoted,” “continued,” “constant,” “[be] steadfast.”<\/p>\n<p>This persistent patience is called for in prayer (Lk 18:1-8; Col 4:2); in well doing (Rom 2:7; Gal 6:9); in Christian teaching (Acts 2:42; 2 Tm 3:14); in affliction (2 Thes 1:4); in grace (Acts 13:43; 2 Cor 6:1); in faith (Acts 14:22; Col 1:23); in divine love (Jn 15:9; Jude 1:21); in standing firm (1 Cor 16:13; 2 Thes 2:15); in abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4-10; 1 Jn 2:28); in running with patience (Heb 6:12; 12:1); in not falling away (Heb 3:12; 4:1-10); and in being zealous to confirm our call and election (2 Pt 1:10).<\/p>\n<p>The failure in perseverance of Judas (Jn 6:71), Demas (2 Tm 4:10), and Hymenaeus (2 Tm 2:17) must be kept in mind, as well as the dread possibility of neglecting so great a salvation (Heb 2:3), being disqualified (1 Cor 9:27), falling while we think we stand (1 Cor 10:12), and committing apostasy (Heb 6:1-8). For, as Jesus said, “He who endures to the end will be saved” (Mt 10:22; 24:13). Such extraordinary emphasis cannot be accidental. The pressures of pagan society, the danger of persecution, emotional reaction after a wonderful initial experience, and the apparent implication of “instant salvation,” made it imperative for Christians to understand that by their endurance they would inherit eternal salvation (Lk 21:19; Rom 5:3; Col 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Scripture never implies that perseverance depends entirely upon human effort. In the OT, the redeeming purpose of God is unswerving; God’s covenant stands, though it needs to be renewed (Jer 31:31-34). Divine love (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span>) connotes changeless loyalty; God “will never fail nor forsake” for “his own name’s sake.” The NT assurance is that Christ will raise his own at the last day—none shall pluck them from his hand or the Father’s. Christ will keep us from falling. God is faithful; he works in us to will and work for his good pleasure, and will not allow us to be tempted beyond our strength. Nothing, in heaven or earth, present or future, shall separate us from divine love. We are already sealed by the Holy Spirit as a guarantee of eternal salvation, and we are kept by the power of God unto a salvation yet to be revealed.<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural tension between exhortation to perseverance and assurance of salvation has given rise to much debate. The intellectual paradox is resolved only in spiritual experience.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assurance; Backsliding.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSEVERANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nourished a patient faith (Jer 32:1-15; Hos 3:4-5; Jl 2:28-29; Hb 2:1-3; Dn 12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The NT everywhere urges similar perseverance. Among several Greek expressions, the usual word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">proskartereo<\/span><em>,<\/em> has the root meaning “to attend continually, adhere steadfastly” (Mk 3:9; Acts 8:13; 10:7; Rom 13:6), and is variously translated “devoted,” “continued,” “constant,” “[be] steadfast.”<\/p>\n<p>This persistent patience is called for in prayer (Lk 18:1-8; Col 4:2); in well doing (Rom 2:7; Gal 6:9); in Christian teaching (Acts 2:42; 2 Tm 3:14); in affliction (2 Thes 1:4); in grace (Acts 13:43; 2 Cor 6:1); in faith (Acts 14:22; Col 1:23); in divine love (Jn 15:9; Jude 1:21); in standing firm (1 Cor 16:13; 2 Thes 2:15); in abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4-10; 1 Jn 2:28); in running with patience (Heb 6:12; 12:1); in not falling away (Heb 3:12; 4:1-10); and in being zealous to confirm our call and election (2 Pt 1:10).<\/p>\n<p>The failure in perseverance of Judas (Jn 6:71), Demas (2 Tm 4:10), and Hymenaeus (2 Tm 2:17) must be kept in mind, as well as the dread possibility of neglecting so great a salvation (Heb 2:3), being disqualified (1 Cor 9:27), falling while we think we stand (1 Cor 10:12), and committing apostasy (Heb 6:1-8). For, as Jesus said, “He who endures to the end will be saved” (Mt 10:22; 24:13). Such extraordinary emphasis cannot be accidental. The pressures of pagan society, the danger of persecution, emotional reaction after a wonderful initial experience, and the apparent implication of “instant salvation,” made it imperative for Christians to understand that by their endurance they would inherit eternal salvation (Lk 21:19; Rom 5:3; Col 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Scripture never implies that perseverance depends entirely upon human effort. In the OT, the redeeming purpose of God is unswerving; God’s covenant stands, though it needs to be renewed (Jer 31:31-34). Divine love (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span>) connotes changeless loyalty; God “will never fail nor forsake” for “his own name’s sake.” The NT assurance is that Christ will raise his own at the last day—none shall pluck them from his hand or the Father’s. Christ will keep us from falling. God is faithful; he works in us to will and work for his good pleasure, and will not allow us to be tempted beyond our strength. Nothing, in heaven or earth, present or future, shall separate us from divine love. We are already sealed by the Holy Spirit as a guarantee of eternal salvation, and we are kept by the power of God unto a salvation yet to be revealed.<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural tension between exhortation to perseverance and assurance of salvation has given rise to much debate. The intellectual paradox is resolved only in spiritual experience.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assurance; Backsliding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSEVERANCE Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nou...","summary_en":"PERSEVERANCE Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nou...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34805,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shekinah*","title_en":"Shekinah*","content_ro":"<h3>SHEKINAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “the one who dwells” or “that which dwells.” The term enters Christian theology from its use in the Targums and rabbinic literature to describe the immanent presence in the world of the transcendent Deity. Although the word is not itself used in either Testament, it clearly originates in OT passages that describe God as dwelling among a people or in a particular place (Gn 9:27; Ex 25:8; 29:45-46; Nm 5:3; 1 Kgs 6:13; Pss 68:16-18; 74:2; Is 8:18; Ez 43:7-9; Jl 3:17, 21; Zec 2:10-11); God, whose dwelling is in heaven, also dwells on earth. The term is also applied to the “shekinah glory,” the visible pillar of fire and smoke that dwelled in the midst of Israel at Sinai (Ex 19:16-18), in the wilderness (40:34-38), and in the temple (1 Kgs 6:13; 8:10-13; 2 Chr 6:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The NT frequently alludes to the concept of the shekinah, even though the term itself is not used. God’s presence in the NT is frequently associated with light and glory (Lk 2:9; 9:29; Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-11; 26:12-16; 2 Pt 1:16-18). John’s Gospel emphasizes both the concept of glory and the concept of dwelling. When the Word became flesh, he dwelt among men who beheld his glory (Jn 1:14). The Spirit of God remained on him (v 32) and would be with his followers forever (14:16). He would abide in those who abide in Jesus (15:4-10). The same themes of dwelling in Christ and of his dwelling in his people occur repeatedly also in John’s letters (1 Jn 2:6, 14, 24, 27-28; 3:6, 14-15, 24; 2 Jn 1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also identifies Christ as the shekinah of God. All the fullness of the Godhead dwells in him bodily (Col 1:19; 2:9). The dwelling of Christ in the church constitutes the saints as the people of God (1:15-23). Paul’s message was the “gospel of the glory of Christ,” for God had caused light to shine to give “knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (2 Cor 4:4-6, <span>niv<\/span>). Finally, the writer of Hebrews sees Christ as “the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being” (Heb 1:3, <span>niv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Glory; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Theophany.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEKINAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “the one who dwells” or “that which dwells.” The term enters Christian theology from its use in the Targums and rabbinic literature to describe the immanent presence in the world of the transcendent Deity. Although the word is not itself used in either Testament, it clearly originates in OT passages that describe God as dwelling among a people or in a particular place (Gn 9:27; Ex 25:8; 29:45-46; Nm 5:3; 1 Kgs 6:13; Pss 68:16-18; 74:2; Is 8:18; Ez 43:7-9; Jl 3:17, 21; Zec 2:10-11); God, whose dwelling is in heaven, also dwells on earth. The term is also applied to the “shekinah glory,” the visible pillar of fire and smoke that dwelled in the midst of Israel at Sinai (Ex 19:16-18), in the wilderness (40:34-38), and in the temple (1 Kgs 6:13; 8:10-13; 2 Chr 6:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The NT frequently alludes to the concept of the shekinah, even though the term itself is not used. God’s presence in the NT is frequently associated with light and glory (Lk 2:9; 9:29; Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-11; 26:12-16; 2 Pt 1:16-18). John’s Gospel emphasizes both the concept of glory and the concept of dwelling. When the Word became flesh, he dwelt among men who beheld his glory (Jn 1:14). The Spirit of God remained on him (v 32) and would be with his followers forever (14:16). He would abide in those who abide in Jesus (15:4-10). The same themes of dwelling in Christ and of his dwelling in his people occur repeatedly also in John’s letters (1 Jn 2:6, 14, 24, 27-28; 3:6, 14-15, 24; 2 Jn 1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also identifies Christ as the shekinah of God. All the fullness of the Godhead dwells in him bodily (Col 1:19; 2:9). The dwelling of Christ in the church constitutes the saints as the people of God (1:15-23). Paul’s message was the “gospel of the glory of Christ,” for God had caused light to shine to give “knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (2 Cor 4:4-6, <span>niv<\/span>). Finally, the writer of Hebrews sees Christ as “the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being” (Heb 1:3, <span>niv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Glory; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Theophany.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEKINAH* Transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “the one who dwells” or “that which dwells.” The term enters Christian theology from its use in the Targums and rabbinic literature to describe the immanent presence in the world of the transcendent Deity. Although the word is not itself used in either Testament, it clearly originates in OT passages that describe God as dwelling among a people or in a particular place (Gn 9:27; Ex 25:8; 29:45-46; Nm 5:3; 1 Kgs 6:13; Pss 68:16-18; 74:2; Is 8:1...","summary_en":"SHEKINAH* Transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “the one who dwells” or “that which dwells.” The term enters Christian theology from its use in the Targums and rabbinic literature to describe the immanent presence in the world of the transcendent Deity. Although the word is not itself used in either Testament, it clearly originates in OT passages that describe God as dwelling among a people or in a particular place (Gn 9:27; Ex 25:8; 29:45-46; Nm 5:3; 1 Kgs 6:13; Pss 68:16-18; 74:2; Is 8:1...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56655,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:4","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:4","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","summary_en":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84281,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:4","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:4","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","summary_en":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:4","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:4","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","summary_en":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:4","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:4","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:4<\/strong> The term <em>remain<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span>) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","summary_en":"15:4 The term remain (Greek menō) is key to understanding 15:4-10. A growing disciple, in whom the Father and the Son live through the Spirit, must be continuously connected to Christ (see 14:16-25; 15:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":11210,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eternal Life","title_en":"Eternal Life","content_ro":"<h3>ETERNAL LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>Mode of existence referred to in Scripture characterized by either timelessness or immortality; kind of life attributed to God and distributed to believers. The perspective of the biblical writers flowed from an understanding of a living God who existed prior to the world’s creation and who will continue to exist when the end of time arrives. God’s gift to those who are obedient and responsible to him is designated as “eternal life” or some such synonym. John’s Gospel provides the most definitive material on eternal life.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “eternal life” occurs only once in the Greek version of the OT (Dn 12:2, with the basic meaning of “the life of the age,” designating the life of the age beyond the resurrection from the dead). The primary meaning of “life” in the OT, however, is the quality of well-being in earthly existence.<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, the rabbinic distinction between “this age” and “the age which is to come” emphasized that the concept of life in the new age consists of a qualitative, rather than simply a quantitative, distinction from the present age.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word translated “eternal” is derived from the word for “age” or “eon.” The setting of the NT within the context of Judaism, with its concept of a living God and the consequent promise of “the age which is to come,” gives depth and color to the meaning of the adjective “eternal.” Jesus Christ’s coming as God’s definitive revelation brings the possibility of the qualities of life in the future messianic age into present reality.<\/p>\n<p>The rich young ruler came to Jesus and asked for directions on how to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). He was obviously thinking of resurrection in the age to come. Jesus answered in the same terms (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In his response to the rich young ruler, Jesus equated the reception of eternal life with entrance into the kingdom of God (Mk 10:23-25). The kingdom of God is not simply a future event but is already inaugurated in Jesus’ life, ministry, and teachings. The kingdom is a gift of life available while the follower still lives within the present age. Many of Jesus’ parables emphasize this point (e.g., those in Mt 13). The Beatitudes in the Sermon on the Mount (5:3-12) reinforce the concept of a present blessedness that includes salvation, forgiveness, and righteousness. Thus eternal life is a present blessing available to those who submit to God’s reign and are enjoying the blessing of this new era of salvation before the final consummation at the present age’s end.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive discussion of eternal life comes from John’s Gospel. John’s purpose delineates the crucial significance of the concept: “But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name” (Jn 20:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The earliest Johannine reference to eternal life is found in John 3:15.<\/p>\n<p>John clearly shared in the Jewish expectation of the age to come with its anticipated blessings (e.g., Jn 3:36; 4:14; 5:29, 39; 6:27; 12:25). Eternal life is defined by the special gifts of the messianic age when it arrives at consummation. Lazarus’s resurrection (ch 11) was a living parable demonstrating the future life available to those who trust in Christ. Martha, before her brother’s actual resurrection, asserted her belief that Lazarus would be raised on the last day (v 24). Jesus responded that he himself is the resurrection and the life, and that those who believe in him will never die, even if they die physically (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<p>The central emphasis of John’s Gospel, however, does not lie in the anticipated future but in the present experience of that future life. The life of the age to come is already available in Christ to the believer. The metaphors with which Jesus defined his own mission emphasize the present new life: living water that is a spring of water welling up to eternal life (Jn 4:10-14); living bread that satisfies the world’s spiritual hunger (6:35-40); the light of the world who leads his followers into the light of life (8:12); the good shepherd who brings abundant life (10:10); the life giver who raises the dead (11:25); the way, the truth, and the life (14:6); and the genuine vine who sustains those who abide in him (15:5).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was very careful to note that the accomplishment of his mission did not rest in his own nature and ability but in the Father who sent him. Jesus’ submission to the Father highlights again the fact that life is a gift of God. Those who believe in the Son of God are recipients of the life that God alone gives—eternal life. Thus the promise of resurrection for all believers, made explicit in Lazarus’s resurrection and guaranteed in Christ’s resurrection as the “firstfruits” (in Pauline terminology, <span>kjv<\/span> 1 Cor 15:23), is the natural consequence of God’s gift (Jn 5:26-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus added further content to the concept of eternal life by connecting it with knowing the true God (Jn 17:3). In Greek thought, knowledge referred to the result of either contemplation or mystical ecstasy. In the OT, however, knowledge meant experience, relationship, fellowship, and concern (cf. Jer 31:34). This connotation of knowledge as intimate relationship is underlined by the usage of the verb form to designate sexual relations between male and female (cf. Gn 4:1). Jesus stated, “I am the good shepherd; I know my own and my own know me, as the Father knows me and I know the Father” (Jn 10:14-15, <span>rsv<\/span>). The intimate and mutual relationship of Father and Son is the model for the relationship of the Son and his disciples. This knowledge does not come by education or manipulation of the mind but by revelation through the Son (1:18; cf. 14:7).<\/p>\n<p>A brief survey of the primary elements in the concept of eternal life clearly shows that it is not simply an endless or everlasting life. Although there are no final boundaries to eternal life, the Bible’s primary emphasis is on the quality of life, especially its divine elements. Eternal life is the importation of the qualities of the age to come into the present through the revelation of a faithful God in Christ, and it brings knowledge of God’s relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Life; New Creation, New Creature; Regeneration.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ETERNAL LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>Mode of existence referred to in Scripture characterized by either timelessness or immortality; kind of life attributed to God and distributed to believers. The perspective of the biblical writers flowed from an understanding of a living God who existed prior to the world’s creation and who will continue to exist when the end of time arrives. God’s gift to those who are obedient and responsible to him is designated as “eternal life” or some such synonym. John’s Gospel provides the most definitive material on eternal life.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “eternal life” occurs only once in the Greek version of the OT (Dn 12:2, with the basic meaning of “the life of the age,” designating the life of the age beyond the resurrection from the dead). The primary meaning of “life” in the OT, however, is the quality of well-being in earthly existence.<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, the rabbinic distinction between “this age” and “the age which is to come” emphasized that the concept of life in the new age consists of a qualitative, rather than simply a quantitative, distinction from the present age.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word translated “eternal” is derived from the word for “age” or “eon.” The setting of the NT within the context of Judaism, with its concept of a living God and the consequent promise of “the age which is to come,” gives depth and color to the meaning of the adjective “eternal.” Jesus Christ’s coming as God’s definitive revelation brings the possibility of the qualities of life in the future messianic age into present reality.<\/p>\n<p>The rich young ruler came to Jesus and asked for directions on how to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). He was obviously thinking of resurrection in the age to come. Jesus answered in the same terms (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In his response to the rich young ruler, Jesus equated the reception of eternal life with entrance into the kingdom of God (Mk 10:23-25). The kingdom of God is not simply a future event but is already inaugurated in Jesus’ life, ministry, and teachings. The kingdom is a gift of life available while the follower still lives within the present age. Many of Jesus’ parables emphasize this point (e.g., those in Mt 13). The Beatitudes in the Sermon on the Mount (5:3-12) reinforce the concept of a present blessedness that includes salvation, forgiveness, and righteousness. Thus eternal life is a present blessing available to those who submit to God’s reign and are enjoying the blessing of this new era of salvation before the final consummation at the present age’s end.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive discussion of eternal life comes from John’s Gospel. John’s purpose delineates the crucial significance of the concept: “But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name” (Jn 20:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The earliest Johannine reference to eternal life is found in John 3:15.<\/p>\n<p>John clearly shared in the Jewish expectation of the age to come with its anticipated blessings (e.g., Jn 3:36; 4:14; 5:29, 39; 6:27; 12:25). Eternal life is defined by the special gifts of the messianic age when it arrives at consummation. Lazarus’s resurrection (ch 11) was a living parable demonstrating the future life available to those who trust in Christ. Martha, before her brother’s actual resurrection, asserted her belief that Lazarus would be raised on the last day (v 24). Jesus responded that he himself is the resurrection and the life, and that those who believe in him will never die, even if they die physically (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<p>The central emphasis of John’s Gospel, however, does not lie in the anticipated future but in the present experience of that future life. The life of the age to come is already available in Christ to the believer. The metaphors with which Jesus defined his own mission emphasize the present new life: living water that is a spring of water welling up to eternal life (Jn 4:10-14); living bread that satisfies the world’s spiritual hunger (6:35-40); the light of the world who leads his followers into the light of life (8:12); the good shepherd who brings abundant life (10:10); the life giver who raises the dead (11:25); the way, the truth, and the life (14:6); and the genuine vine who sustains those who abide in him (15:5).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was very careful to note that the accomplishment of his mission did not rest in his own nature and ability but in the Father who sent him. Jesus’ submission to the Father highlights again the fact that life is a gift of God. Those who believe in the Son of God are recipients of the life that God alone gives—eternal life. Thus the promise of resurrection for all believers, made explicit in Lazarus’s resurrection and guaranteed in Christ’s resurrection as the “firstfruits” (in Pauline terminology, <span>kjv<\/span> 1 Cor 15:23), is the natural consequence of God’s gift (Jn 5:26-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus added further content to the concept of eternal life by connecting it with knowing the true God (Jn 17:3). In Greek thought, knowledge referred to the result of either contemplation or mystical ecstasy. In the OT, however, knowledge meant experience, relationship, fellowship, and concern (cf. Jer 31:34). This connotation of knowledge as intimate relationship is underlined by the usage of the verb form to designate sexual relations between male and female (cf. Gn 4:1). Jesus stated, “I am the good shepherd; I know my own and my own know me, as the Father knows me and I know the Father” (Jn 10:14-15, <span>rsv<\/span>). The intimate and mutual relationship of Father and Son is the model for the relationship of the Son and his disciples. This knowledge does not come by education or manipulation of the mind but by revelation through the Son (1:18; cf. 14:7).<\/p>\n<p>A brief survey of the primary elements in the concept of eternal life clearly shows that it is not simply an endless or everlasting life. Although there are no final boundaries to eternal life, the Bible’s primary emphasis is on the quality of life, especially its divine elements. Eternal life is the importation of the qualities of the age to come into the present through the revelation of a faithful God in Christ, and it brings knowledge of God’s relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Life; New Creation, New Creature; Regeneration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ETERNAL LIFE Mode of existence referred to in Scripture characterized by either timelessness or immortality; kind of life attributed to God and distributed to believers. The perspective of the biblical writers flowed from an understanding of a living God who existed prior to the world’s creation and who will continue to exist when the end of time arrives. God’s gift to those who are obedient and responsible to him is designated as “eternal life” or some such synonym. John’s Gospel provides th...","summary_en":"ETERNAL LIFE Mode of existence referred to in Scripture characterized by either timelessness or immortality; kind of life attributed to God and distributed to believers. The perspective of the biblical writers flowed from an understanding of a living God who existed prior to the world’s creation and who will continue to exist when the end of time arrives. God’s gift to those who are obedient and responsible to him is designated as “eternal life” or some such synonym. John’s Gospel provides th...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61592,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66012,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89218,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93638,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116844,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121264,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144470,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148890,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","title_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3> “<span>I Am<\/span>” Sayings of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identity of the speaker. As an example from another Gospel, Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “You have heard that it was said . . . but <em>I <\/em>[<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō<\/span>] say” (see Matt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44, etc.). The inclusion of the personal pronoun sharpens the contrast between Jesus’ instruction and that of Moses. This remarkable phrase underscores the authority of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>At other times, Jesus’ use of “I am” is grammatically odd, occurring without a predicate. For example, “Before Abraham was even born, <span>I Am<\/span>” (John 8:58). <em>Before Abraham, Jesus was what?<\/em> (cp. 8:28, 59; 13:19). The best explanation of this odd expression comes from the Old Testament. When Moses met the Lord on Mount Sinai, he was eager to discover God’s name (Exod 3:6, 13-14). God tells him that his name is <span>Yhwh<\/span>, four Hebrew letters that express existence. When the Old Testament was later translated into Greek, this name for God was translated as “<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">egō eimi<\/span>”—emphatic “<span>I Am<\/span>.” The Greek Old Testament continued to use this title (see Isa 43:25; 51:12; 52:6). Any Jewish reader who knew the Old Testament would understand what Jesus meant when he employed the divine “<span>I Am<\/span>.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus not only represents God. The “<span>I Am<\/span>” statements demonstrate Jesus’ divine status and showing that he can work, speak, and act in the Father’s stead. He is no mere man. He is the Word of God dwelling in human flesh. His voice is the voice of the Father, and his life is the life of God made visible in human form. The use of the expression “<span>I Am<\/span>” is thus a striking and powerful way to express who Jesus is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 6:35, 48; 8:12, 58; 9:510:7-14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1, 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","summary_en":"“I Am” Sayings of Jesus Numerous times in the Gospel of John, Jesus uses the expression “I am” (rendered in Greek as egō eimi). Sometimes it comes as a simple self-description such as “I am the bread of life.” John has seven of these statements that have “I am” followed by a predicate (6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1). One thing important to note is that Greek does not require the use of the pronoun “I” (egō) in these sentences. Thus, the presence of the pronoun emphasizes the identit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":5608,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Branch","title_en":"Branch","content_ro":"<h3>BRANCH<\/h3>\n<p>Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine (Ez 17:6; cf. Ps 80:8-11). “Branch,” with its implication of new growth, can signify prosperity (Gn 49:22; Jb 8:16; Ps 80:8-11; Ez 36:8). Branches can be cut or broken off; hence, the word may depict judgment (Jb 18:16; Is 9:14; Jer 11:16). Such passages speak of withering, being cut, or being burned; Jesus combined all three ideas into one metaphor (Jn 15:6). In a similar way, the apostle Paul wrote that the Jews who didn’t believe would be broken off (Rom 11:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>The major use of such symbolism refers to the Davidic Messiah. Although that use of “branch” actually stems from the prophetic period, its roots go much farther back. The concept was used with reference to an influential figure, such as a king’s personal servant (Gn 40:9-13), the patriarch Joseph (49:22), Job (Jb 29:19), or the Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 4:12). Passages such as 2 Samuel 23:4 and Psalm 132:17 speak of the Davidic line as “growing” or “sprouting forth” (the literal meaning of the Hebrew verbs). Finally, images of agricultural prosperity were used as promised blessings of the messianic age (cf. Lv 26 with the prophetic passages on previous page). It is understandable how the term “branch” could become a technical designation for the Messiah, as is described above.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BRANCH<\/h3>\n<p>Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine (Ez 17:6; cf. Ps 80:8-11). “Branch,” with its implication of new growth, can signify prosperity (Gn 49:22; Jb 8:16; Ps 80:8-11; Ez 36:8). Branches can be cut or broken off; hence, the word may depict judgment (Jb 18:16; Is 9:14; Jer 11:16). Such passages speak of withering, being cut, or being burned; Jesus combined all three ideas into one metaphor (Jn 15:6). In a similar way, the apostle Paul wrote that the Jews who didn’t believe would be broken off (Rom 11:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>The major use of such symbolism refers to the Davidic Messiah. Although that use of “branch” actually stems from the prophetic period, its roots go much farther back. The concept was used with reference to an influential figure, such as a king’s personal servant (Gn 40:9-13), the patriarch Joseph (49:22), Job (Jb 29:19), or the Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 4:12). Passages such as 2 Samuel 23:4 and Psalm 132:17 speak of the Davidic line as “growing” or “sprouting forth” (the literal meaning of the Hebrew verbs). Finally, images of agricultural prosperity were used as promised blessings of the messianic age (cf. Lv 26 with the prophetic passages on previous page). It is understandable how the term “branch” could become a technical designation for the Messiah, as is described above.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BRANCH Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43). Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine ...","summary_en":"BRANCH Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43). Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38014,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Vineyard Vines","title_en":"Vineyard Vines","content_ro":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VINES, VINEYARD<\/h3>\n<p>Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20, 24; Jgs 14:5; 15:5) provided fruit and wine to enhance the bland diet of the Hebrews. Wine was traded extensively in the late monarchy (cf. Ez 27:18), as well as in the Greek and Roman periods. For the Hebrews, an ideal picture of life was a sedentary one in which a man could remain peacefully in one place, cultivating his plot of land, and sitting under his vine (1 Kgs 4:25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The typical vineyard was surrounded by a protective hedge or fence, and at harvesttime a watchtower was manned to guard the crop from thieves (Jb 24:18; Is 1:8; Mk 12:1). The vines were planted in rows within the enclosed area, and as the plants grew, the tendrils were trained along supports to raise the fruit-bearing branches off the ground (Ez 17:6). The vines were pruned and tended by vinedressers (Lv 25:3; Is 61:5; Jl 3:10; Jn 15:2). At harvesttime the mature fruit was picked and taken to the winepresses (Hos 9:2). A festive atmosphere accompanied the treading of the grapes (Is 16:10; Jer 25:30), and the fermenting juice was collected in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or large pottery jars.<\/p>\n<p>People working in the grape harvest were exempted from military service, which attests to its importance. Taxes and debts were often discharged by payments of wine, and the law provided for the poor to glean in the vineyards as in the wheat fields (Lv 19:9-10). Nonproductive vines were used for producing charcoal (Ez 15:4; Jn 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Christ frequently used the vineyard as a background for his parables (Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-43; Mk 12:1-11; Lk 13:6-9; 20:9-18). Wine-making methods were commonly known and understood, so that an allegory of placing new wine in old wineskins (Mt 9:17) was immediately familiar and significant. In a symbolic sense, Christ described himself as the true vine (Jn 15:1-11), and his blood became the sacramental wine of communion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Plants (Vine).<\/p>","summary_ro":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","summary_en":"VINES, VINEYARD Plants cultivated for the production of grapes, raisins, and wine. The grapevine is mentioned frequently in Scripture both in a literal and a figurative sense. Probably originating in the Ararat region (Gn 9:20), the vine was also cultivated in ancient Egypt, where tomb murals depict the wine-making process. The Canaanites provided wine for Abraham (14:18), and Moses described the vineyards in the Promised Land (Dt 6:11). Excellent grapes from the valleys and plains (Nm 13:20,...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56656,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:6","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:6","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","summary_en":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84282,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:6","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:6","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","summary_en":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:6","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:6","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","summary_en":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:6","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:6","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v\"><strong>15:6<\/strong> <em>Anyone who does not remain<\/em> in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are <em>useless<\/em> and will <em>be burned<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","summary_en":"15:6 Anyone who does not remain in Christ is separated from the vine and its life. A living branch produces clusters of grapes (15:5). Connection with the vine allows the life of Jesus to flow fruitfully through the disciple. Those who claim to be attached to Christ but yield no fruit are useless and will be burned.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61591,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67891,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Security and Obedience","title_en":"Security and Obedience","content_ro":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","summary_en":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89217,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95517,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Security and Obedience","title_en":"Security and Obedience","content_ro":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","summary_en":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116843,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123143,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Security and Obedience","title_en":"Security and Obedience","content_ro":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","summary_en":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144469,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150769,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Security and Obedience","title_en":"Security and Obedience","content_ro":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Security and Obedience<\/h3>\n<p>The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure?<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of security. Yet this concern for security is the precise reason that the New Testament writers issued their warnings. They stressed the importance of obedience, faithfulness, and endurance.<\/p>\n<p>This call to obedience was nothing new. God repeatedly called the people of Israel to be faithful (e.g., Gen 12:1-2; 15:1-18; 22:16-18; 28:13-14; 1 Sam 12:19-25; 15:10-11; 28:16-19; 2 Sam 7:11-16; 1 Kgs 9:4-9). All the promises and predictions of God are conditioned upon faithfulness and obedience (see especially Jer 18:7-10). Paul realized that the disobedience of Israel had led to some of them being “broken off” (Rom 11:17), and he clearly warned Gentile Christians not to become overconfident of their position (Rom 11:13-32). The promise of God is unchanged, but human disobedience brings judgment. Humble obedience and dependence on God are the basis for genuine security.<\/p>\n<p>At the time when the New Testament was written, it was costly and threatening to be a Christian. The book of Revelation promises a secure hope for believers in Christ despite the threat of death, but this hope is set clearly within the context of warnings about judgment (Rev 21:8, 27; 22:15). The call to faithfulness and obedience is a major theme in Revelation (see 2:5, 10-11, 16-17, 26-29; 3:2, 12, 17-19, 21-22; 7:14; 13:9-10, 12; 16:15; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7; 22:3, 7, 11-12). The New Testament clearly affirms that with God’s help, faithful Christians will persevere to the end (see Heb 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 3:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:1, 13-16; 1 Sam 12:22-25; 1 Kgs 9:4-9; Jer 18:7-10; John 10:27-30; 15:6; Rom 11:13-32; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8, 18-20; 13:6; Jas 1:25; Rev 2:5, 10-11, 16-17; 3:5, 10-12; 18:4; 20:12; 21:7-8; 22:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","summary_en":"Security and Obedience The thought of one’s name being erased from the Book of Life (Rev 3:5) may raise questions about the security of salvation: Doesn’t the New Testament assure believers that their salvation is secure? The New Testament is filled with words of assurance (e.g., John 10:27-30; 1 Cor 10:13; Heb 6:18-20), but it also contains stern warnings (e.g., John 15:6; 1 Cor 10:6-12; Heb 6:4-8; Rev 2:4-5; 3:11). We often dislike and avoid the warnings because they threaten our sense of s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":4777,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56657,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","summary_en":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84283,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","summary_en":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","summary_en":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:7<\/strong> Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus <em>may ask for anything<\/em> because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","summary_en":"15:7 Those whose lives are in harmony with Jesus may ask for anything because their prayers are controlled by his word. Their prayers will be answered and bring glory to God (14:10-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":56658,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","summary_en":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84284,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","summary_en":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","summary_en":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:8<\/strong> <em>True disciples<\/em> will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","summary_en":"15:8 True disciples will experience a transformed, fruit-bearing life because they live in a relationship of love with both Jesus and the Father (15:9-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":29766,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perseverance","title_en":"Perseverance","content_ro":"<h3>PERSEVERANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nourished a patient faith (Jer 32:1-15; Hos 3:4-5; Jl 2:28-29; Hb 2:1-3; Dn 12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The NT everywhere urges similar perseverance. Among several Greek expressions, the usual word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">proskartereo<\/span><em>,<\/em> has the root meaning “to attend continually, adhere steadfastly” (Mk 3:9; Acts 8:13; 10:7; Rom 13:6), and is variously translated “devoted,” “continued,” “constant,” “[be] steadfast.”<\/p>\n<p>This persistent patience is called for in prayer (Lk 18:1-8; Col 4:2); in well doing (Rom 2:7; Gal 6:9); in Christian teaching (Acts 2:42; 2 Tm 3:14); in affliction (2 Thes 1:4); in grace (Acts 13:43; 2 Cor 6:1); in faith (Acts 14:22; Col 1:23); in divine love (Jn 15:9; Jude 1:21); in standing firm (1 Cor 16:13; 2 Thes 2:15); in abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4-10; 1 Jn 2:28); in running with patience (Heb 6:12; 12:1); in not falling away (Heb 3:12; 4:1-10); and in being zealous to confirm our call and election (2 Pt 1:10).<\/p>\n<p>The failure in perseverance of Judas (Jn 6:71), Demas (2 Tm 4:10), and Hymenaeus (2 Tm 2:17) must be kept in mind, as well as the dread possibility of neglecting so great a salvation (Heb 2:3), being disqualified (1 Cor 9:27), falling while we think we stand (1 Cor 10:12), and committing apostasy (Heb 6:1-8). For, as Jesus said, “He who endures to the end will be saved” (Mt 10:22; 24:13). Such extraordinary emphasis cannot be accidental. The pressures of pagan society, the danger of persecution, emotional reaction after a wonderful initial experience, and the apparent implication of “instant salvation,” made it imperative for Christians to understand that by their endurance they would inherit eternal salvation (Lk 21:19; Rom 5:3; Col 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Scripture never implies that perseverance depends entirely upon human effort. In the OT, the redeeming purpose of God is unswerving; God’s covenant stands, though it needs to be renewed (Jer 31:31-34). Divine love (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span>) connotes changeless loyalty; God “will never fail nor forsake” for “his own name’s sake.” The NT assurance is that Christ will raise his own at the last day—none shall pluck them from his hand or the Father’s. Christ will keep us from falling. God is faithful; he works in us to will and work for his good pleasure, and will not allow us to be tempted beyond our strength. Nothing, in heaven or earth, present or future, shall separate us from divine love. We are already sealed by the Holy Spirit as a guarantee of eternal salvation, and we are kept by the power of God unto a salvation yet to be revealed.<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural tension between exhortation to perseverance and assurance of salvation has given rise to much debate. The intellectual paradox is resolved only in spiritual experience.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assurance; Backsliding.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSEVERANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nourished a patient faith (Jer 32:1-15; Hos 3:4-5; Jl 2:28-29; Hb 2:1-3; Dn 12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The NT everywhere urges similar perseverance. Among several Greek expressions, the usual word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">proskartereo<\/span><em>,<\/em> has the root meaning “to attend continually, adhere steadfastly” (Mk 3:9; Acts 8:13; 10:7; Rom 13:6), and is variously translated “devoted,” “continued,” “constant,” “[be] steadfast.”<\/p>\n<p>This persistent patience is called for in prayer (Lk 18:1-8; Col 4:2); in well doing (Rom 2:7; Gal 6:9); in Christian teaching (Acts 2:42; 2 Tm 3:14); in affliction (2 Thes 1:4); in grace (Acts 13:43; 2 Cor 6:1); in faith (Acts 14:22; Col 1:23); in divine love (Jn 15:9; Jude 1:21); in standing firm (1 Cor 16:13; 2 Thes 2:15); in abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4-10; 1 Jn 2:28); in running with patience (Heb 6:12; 12:1); in not falling away (Heb 3:12; 4:1-10); and in being zealous to confirm our call and election (2 Pt 1:10).<\/p>\n<p>The failure in perseverance of Judas (Jn 6:71), Demas (2 Tm 4:10), and Hymenaeus (2 Tm 2:17) must be kept in mind, as well as the dread possibility of neglecting so great a salvation (Heb 2:3), being disqualified (1 Cor 9:27), falling while we think we stand (1 Cor 10:12), and committing apostasy (Heb 6:1-8). For, as Jesus said, “He who endures to the end will be saved” (Mt 10:22; 24:13). Such extraordinary emphasis cannot be accidental. The pressures of pagan society, the danger of persecution, emotional reaction after a wonderful initial experience, and the apparent implication of “instant salvation,” made it imperative for Christians to understand that by their endurance they would inherit eternal salvation (Lk 21:19; Rom 5:3; Col 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Scripture never implies that perseverance depends entirely upon human effort. In the OT, the redeeming purpose of God is unswerving; God’s covenant stands, though it needs to be renewed (Jer 31:31-34). Divine love (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span>) connotes changeless loyalty; God “will never fail nor forsake” for “his own name’s sake.” The NT assurance is that Christ will raise his own at the last day—none shall pluck them from his hand or the Father’s. Christ will keep us from falling. God is faithful; he works in us to will and work for his good pleasure, and will not allow us to be tempted beyond our strength. Nothing, in heaven or earth, present or future, shall separate us from divine love. We are already sealed by the Holy Spirit as a guarantee of eternal salvation, and we are kept by the power of God unto a salvation yet to be revealed.<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural tension between exhortation to perseverance and assurance of salvation has given rise to much debate. The intellectual paradox is resolved only in spiritual experience.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assurance; Backsliding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSEVERANCE Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nou...","summary_en":"PERSEVERANCE Action or condition of steadfastness. OT Israel waited generations for fulfillment of promises that many believers never lived to see (Heb 11:1, 13, 21-22, 39). The promise to Abraham sustained hope for centuries before Canaan was possessed. The lesson of the wilderness journey, when the waning of initial zeal prevented the people from entering the Promised Land, was never forgotten (3:16-19). Prophets looked constantly beyond failure and tragedy to distant horizons, and they nou...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":23605,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Love","title_en":"Love","content_ro":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","summary_en":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28091,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Obedience","title_en":"Obedience","content_ro":"<h3>OBEDIENCE<\/h3>\n<p>Act or instance of submitting to the restraint or command of an authority; compliance with the demands or requests of someone over us. The general words for obedience in both Hebrew and Greek refer to hearing or hearkening to a superior authority. Another major Greek word includes the idea of submission to authority in the sense of arranging or ordering oneself under someone in a place of command. A third Greek word suggests obedience that is a result more of persuasion than of submission.<\/p>\n<p>Obedience to God and human authorities is an obligation stressed in both the OT and NT. Abraham was additionally blessed on one occasion because he obeyed God in offering Isaac on the altar (Gn 22:18; cf. 26:5). God’s continued blessing upon Israel by virtue of the Sinai covenant was contingent upon their obeying his voice and keeping his covenant (Ex 19:5). On the verge of entering Canaan, Moses placed before Israel a blessing and a curse—the former if they listened to and obeyed the commandments of the Lord, and the latter if they did not (Dt 11:22-28).<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy warns that the penalty for stubborn and rebellious children is, first of all, chastisement, and then death by stoning if they persistently refuse to listen (Dt 21:18-21).<\/p>\n<p>One evidence that a person is a child of God is continued obedience to the commandments of God (1 Jn 2:3-5). Jesus said that those who love him would keep his commandments (Jn 14:15). And Peter, speaking of Christians, calls them “obedient children” (1 Pt 1:14; see also Heb 5:9; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Christians are to render obedience to a variety of people: believers to the Lord (Jn 14:21-24; 15:10), wives to their husbands (Eph 5:22-24; Col 3:18; Ti 2:5; 1 Pt 3:1, 5), children to their parents (Eph 6:1; Col 3:20), citizens to their governmental officials (Rom 13:1-7; Ti 3:1; 1 Pt 2:13-14), and servants to their masters (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22; Ti 2:9; 1 Pt 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>However, in spite of the strong stress on obedience in the Bible, such obedience is never made the grounds for justification before God. Paul declares that salvation is a gift of God that will produce good works (Eph 2:8-10). So, too, James speaks of works of obedience as flowing from faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus himself, on the night of his betrayal, emphasized by repetition that love for him is measured by obedience to his commandments (Jn 14:15, 21, 23-24; 15:10). He underscored this by asserting that his own love for the Father was evidenced by his obeying the Father’s commands (14:31). The Bible mentions many people whose obedience to God comes from their faith and love for him (Heb 11). For example, Abel believed God and offered a more excellent sacrifice (v 4); Noah put his faith in God’s word and prepared an ark (v 7); by faith Abraham left Ur at God’s direction, not knowing his destination (v 8); Moses put his faith in God and refused the privileges of being called Pharaoh’s son, choosing rather to identify with Israel, God’s people (vv 24-25). The greatest example of obedience based on trust in God is Jesus Christ himself. He emptied himself, taking the form of a bond servant; he humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross (Phil 2:7-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OBEDIENCE<\/h3>\n<p>Act or instance of submitting to the restraint or command of an authority; compliance with the demands or requests of someone over us. The general words for obedience in both Hebrew and Greek refer to hearing or hearkening to a superior authority. Another major Greek word includes the idea of submission to authority in the sense of arranging or ordering oneself under someone in a place of command. A third Greek word suggests obedience that is a result more of persuasion than of submission.<\/p>\n<p>Obedience to God and human authorities is an obligation stressed in both the OT and NT. Abraham was additionally blessed on one occasion because he obeyed God in offering Isaac on the altar (Gn 22:18; cf. 26:5). God’s continued blessing upon Israel by virtue of the Sinai covenant was contingent upon their obeying his voice and keeping his covenant (Ex 19:5). On the verge of entering Canaan, Moses placed before Israel a blessing and a curse—the former if they listened to and obeyed the commandments of the Lord, and the latter if they did not (Dt 11:22-28).<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy warns that the penalty for stubborn and rebellious children is, first of all, chastisement, and then death by stoning if they persistently refuse to listen (Dt 21:18-21).<\/p>\n<p>One evidence that a person is a child of God is continued obedience to the commandments of God (1 Jn 2:3-5). Jesus said that those who love him would keep his commandments (Jn 14:15). And Peter, speaking of Christians, calls them “obedient children” (1 Pt 1:14; see also Heb 5:9; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Christians are to render obedience to a variety of people: believers to the Lord (Jn 14:21-24; 15:10), wives to their husbands (Eph 5:22-24; Col 3:18; Ti 2:5; 1 Pt 3:1, 5), children to their parents (Eph 6:1; Col 3:20), citizens to their governmental officials (Rom 13:1-7; Ti 3:1; 1 Pt 2:13-14), and servants to their masters (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22; Ti 2:9; 1 Pt 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>However, in spite of the strong stress on obedience in the Bible, such obedience is never made the grounds for justification before God. Paul declares that salvation is a gift of God that will produce good works (Eph 2:8-10). So, too, James speaks of works of obedience as flowing from faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus himself, on the night of his betrayal, emphasized by repetition that love for him is measured by obedience to his commandments (Jn 14:15, 21, 23-24; 15:10). He underscored this by asserting that his own love for the Father was evidenced by his obeying the Father’s commands (14:31). The Bible mentions many people whose obedience to God comes from their faith and love for him (Heb 11). For example, Abel believed God and offered a more excellent sacrifice (v 4); Noah put his faith in God’s word and prepared an ark (v 7); by faith Abraham left Ur at God’s direction, not knowing his destination (v 8); Moses put his faith in God and refused the privileges of being called Pharaoh’s son, choosing rather to identify with Israel, God’s people (vv 24-25). The greatest example of obedience based on trust in God is Jesus Christ himself. He emptied himself, taking the form of a bond servant; he humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross (Phil 2:7-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OBEDIENCE Act or instance of submitting to the restraint or command of an authority; compliance with the demands or requests of someone over us. The general words for obedience in both Hebrew and Greek refer to hearing or hearkening to a superior authority. Another major Greek word includes the idea of submission to authority in the sense of arranging or ordering oneself under someone in a place of command. A third Greek word suggests obedience that is a result more of persuasion than of subm...","summary_en":"OBEDIENCE Act or instance of submitting to the restraint or command of an authority; compliance with the demands or requests of someone over us. The general words for obedience in both Hebrew and Greek refer to hearing or hearkening to a superior authority. Another major Greek word includes the idea of submission to authority in the sense of arranging or ordering oneself under someone in a place of command. A third Greek word suggests obedience that is a result more of persuasion than of subm...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56659,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:10","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","summary_en":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84285,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:10","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","summary_en":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:10","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","summary_en":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:10","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:10<\/strong> Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","summary_en":"15:10 Just as Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by obeying his will (14:31), Jesus’ disciples exhibit their love through obedience to him (13:34-35; 14:15; 1 Jn 2:5; 5:2-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":67416,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95042,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122668,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150294,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":7234,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Commandment, the New","title_en":"Commandment, the New","content_ro":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","summary_en":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12275,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Fellowship","title_en":"Fellowship","content_ro":"<h3>FELLOWSHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Communion with God, which results in common participation with other believers in the Spirit of God and God’s blessings.<\/p>\n<p>In the beginning Adam was placed in the Garden to enjoy friendship and communion with God. When Adam and Eve chose to assert their own autonomy rather than live under the Creator’s gracious care, the fellowship was broken. As a result, Adam and Eve hid themselves from the Lord’s presence (Gn 3:8). Yet God immediately sought them out and revealed his plan for the ultimate restoration of sinners through the work of the Redeemer (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>The OT tells how God began to draw a special people into fellowship with himself. Enoch is described as a man who walked with God (Gn 5:22, 24). Noah, likewise, walked in communion with the Lord (6:9). And Abraham, the father of Israel, is called “the friend of God” (Jas 2:23). No OT person had deeper fellowship with God than did Moses during his 40-day encounter with the Lord on Mt Sinai (Ex 24). Later in Israel’s history, David wrote psalms that reflect a heart vitally in tune with the living God (Pss 16, 34, 40, 63).<\/p>\n<p>As a result of Christ’s finished work on the cross, God now makes his permanent abode in each believer’s heart (Jn 14:23). As a result, the fellowship that now prevails under the new covenant is nothing less than the vital, spiritual union of the believer with Christ (vv 20-21). Fellowship with God is the goal of the Christian life (1 Jn 1:3), and this relationship will be perfected forever when we see our Savior “face to face” (1 Cor 13:12), when God dwells with his people in eternity (Rv 21:3).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel restores fellowship not only with God but also among believers. Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples illustrates the relationship between the vertical and horizontal dimensions of fellowship (Mk 14:22-25). In the upper room, Jesus shared with his disciples a sacred love feast. The hearts of the Lord and his followers were knit together by a deep sense of love and commitment. Later, the disciples discovered that their own hearts were strongly united out of their common loyalty to Jesus. Following the cross and the outpouring of the Spirit, the church was born—that new society of people in fellowship with God and with one another.<\/p>\n<p>The depth of camaraderie among the first Christians is portrayed in the early chapters of Acts. The believers met together in house groups for teaching, fellowship, the Lord’s Supper, and prayer (Acts 2:42, 46). So profound was their sense of togetherness that the Christians pooled their possessions and distributed them to brothers and sisters in need (2:44-45; 4:32-35). Perhaps the dominant characteristic of this early Christian fellowship was the love among the believers (1 Thes 4:9; 1 Pt 1:22).<\/p>\n<p>Motivated by love, Paul organized among the gentile churches a collection for poor believers in Jerusalem. In Romans 15:26, which speaks of the gifts of the churches in Macedonia and Achaia, the word translated “contribution” is the common Greek word for “fellowship.” Similarly, the fellowship that the Philippian church shared with Paul assumed the form of gifts to support the apostle’s ministry (Phil 1:5; 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture uses several images to describe the spirit of togetherness that characterized the early church. The first is “the household of God” (Eph 2:19; 1 Tm 3:15), or “the household of faith” (Gal 6:10). In God’s household, love and hospitality are to be the rule (Heb 13:1-2). Further, the church is depicted as the family of God on earth (Eph 3:15). God is the Father, and believers are his faithful sons and daughters. The life of God’s family is to be governed by love, tenderness, compassion, and humility (Phil 2:1-4). Finally, the Christian fellowship is represented as the “one new man” or the “one body” (Eph 2:15-16). In spite of great natural diversity in the body, the Holy Spirit binds believers together into a single organism (4:4-6). In this fellowship of love, no believer is insignificant. Each member has been endowed with gifts for the spiritual edification of the entire body.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture lays down the basis of fellowship in 1 John 1:7: “If we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus Christ, then, is the source and fount of all spiritual communion. Only when rightly related to the Lord do we experience true fellowship with another Christian. Just as light and darkness are incompatible, so a believer can have no real fellowship with an unbeliever. Neither can the Christian be in fellowship with one who walks contrary to the teaching of Christ (2 Jn 1:9-11), or a professing brother who is immoral, idolatrous, a drunkard, or a thief (1 Cor 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture lays down several guidelines for enhancing the communion of believers in the body: (1) Love one another with the same compassion that Christ displayed to his own (Jn 13:34-35; 15:12). The law of the fellowship should be the rule of love (Heb 13:1). (2) Cultivate that spirit of humility that seeks the other person’s honor (Phil 2:3-5). (3) Lighten fellow believers’ loads by bearing one another’s burdens (Gal 6:2). (4) Share material blessings with brothers and sisters in need (2 Cor 9:13). (5) Tenderly correct a sinner while helping to find solutions to the problems (Gal 6:1). (6) Succor a fellow believer in times of suffering (1 Cor 12:26). (7) Pray for one another in the Spirit without ceasing (Eph 6:18). The Christian will want to seriously regard the saying of an anonymous saint, “You cannot draw nigh to God if you are at a distance from your brother.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FELLOWSHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Communion with God, which results in common participation with other believers in the Spirit of God and God’s blessings.<\/p>\n<p>In the beginning Adam was placed in the Garden to enjoy friendship and communion with God. When Adam and Eve chose to assert their own autonomy rather than live under the Creator’s gracious care, the fellowship was broken. As a result, Adam and Eve hid themselves from the Lord’s presence (Gn 3:8). Yet God immediately sought them out and revealed his plan for the ultimate restoration of sinners through the work of the Redeemer (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>The OT tells how God began to draw a special people into fellowship with himself. Enoch is described as a man who walked with God (Gn 5:22, 24). Noah, likewise, walked in communion with the Lord (6:9). And Abraham, the father of Israel, is called “the friend of God” (Jas 2:23). No OT person had deeper fellowship with God than did Moses during his 40-day encounter with the Lord on Mt Sinai (Ex 24). Later in Israel’s history, David wrote psalms that reflect a heart vitally in tune with the living God (Pss 16, 34, 40, 63).<\/p>\n<p>As a result of Christ’s finished work on the cross, God now makes his permanent abode in each believer’s heart (Jn 14:23). As a result, the fellowship that now prevails under the new covenant is nothing less than the vital, spiritual union of the believer with Christ (vv 20-21). Fellowship with God is the goal of the Christian life (1 Jn 1:3), and this relationship will be perfected forever when we see our Savior “face to face” (1 Cor 13:12), when God dwells with his people in eternity (Rv 21:3).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel restores fellowship not only with God but also among believers. Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples illustrates the relationship between the vertical and horizontal dimensions of fellowship (Mk 14:22-25). In the upper room, Jesus shared with his disciples a sacred love feast. The hearts of the Lord and his followers were knit together by a deep sense of love and commitment. Later, the disciples discovered that their own hearts were strongly united out of their common loyalty to Jesus. Following the cross and the outpouring of the Spirit, the church was born—that new society of people in fellowship with God and with one another.<\/p>\n<p>The depth of camaraderie among the first Christians is portrayed in the early chapters of Acts. The believers met together in house groups for teaching, fellowship, the Lord’s Supper, and prayer (Acts 2:42, 46). So profound was their sense of togetherness that the Christians pooled their possessions and distributed them to brothers and sisters in need (2:44-45; 4:32-35). Perhaps the dominant characteristic of this early Christian fellowship was the love among the believers (1 Thes 4:9; 1 Pt 1:22).<\/p>\n<p>Motivated by love, Paul organized among the gentile churches a collection for poor believers in Jerusalem. In Romans 15:26, which speaks of the gifts of the churches in Macedonia and Achaia, the word translated “contribution” is the common Greek word for “fellowship.” Similarly, the fellowship that the Philippian church shared with Paul assumed the form of gifts to support the apostle’s ministry (Phil 1:5; 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture uses several images to describe the spirit of togetherness that characterized the early church. The first is “the household of God” (Eph 2:19; 1 Tm 3:15), or “the household of faith” (Gal 6:10). In God’s household, love and hospitality are to be the rule (Heb 13:1-2). Further, the church is depicted as the family of God on earth (Eph 3:15). God is the Father, and believers are his faithful sons and daughters. The life of God’s family is to be governed by love, tenderness, compassion, and humility (Phil 2:1-4). Finally, the Christian fellowship is represented as the “one new man” or the “one body” (Eph 2:15-16). In spite of great natural diversity in the body, the Holy Spirit binds believers together into a single organism (4:4-6). In this fellowship of love, no believer is insignificant. Each member has been endowed with gifts for the spiritual edification of the entire body.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture lays down the basis of fellowship in 1 John 1:7: “If we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus Christ, then, is the source and fount of all spiritual communion. Only when rightly related to the Lord do we experience true fellowship with another Christian. Just as light and darkness are incompatible, so a believer can have no real fellowship with an unbeliever. Neither can the Christian be in fellowship with one who walks contrary to the teaching of Christ (2 Jn 1:9-11), or a professing brother who is immoral, idolatrous, a drunkard, or a thief (1 Cor 5:11).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture lays down several guidelines for enhancing the communion of believers in the body: (1) Love one another with the same compassion that Christ displayed to his own (Jn 13:34-35; 15:12). The law of the fellowship should be the rule of love (Heb 13:1). (2) Cultivate that spirit of humility that seeks the other person’s honor (Phil 2:3-5). (3) Lighten fellow believers’ loads by bearing one another’s burdens (Gal 6:2). (4) Share material blessings with brothers and sisters in need (2 Cor 9:13). (5) Tenderly correct a sinner while helping to find solutions to the problems (Gal 6:1). (6) Succor a fellow believer in times of suffering (1 Cor 12:26). (7) Pray for one another in the Spirit without ceasing (Eph 6:18). The Christian will want to seriously regard the saying of an anonymous saint, “You cannot draw nigh to God if you are at a distance from your brother.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"FELLOWSHIP Communion with God, which results in common participation with other believers in the Spirit of God and God’s blessings. In the beginning Adam was placed in the Garden to enjoy friendship and communion with God. When Adam and Eve chose to assert their own autonomy rather than live under the Creator’s gracious care, the fellowship was broken. As a result, Adam and Eve hid themselves from the Lord’s presence (Gn 3:8). Yet God immediately sought them out and revealed his plan for the ...","summary_en":"FELLOWSHIP Communion with God, which results in common participation with other believers in the Spirit of God and God’s blessings. In the beginning Adam was placed in the Garden to enjoy friendship and communion with God. When Adam and Eve chose to assert their own autonomy rather than live under the Creator’s gracious care, the fellowship was broken. As a result, Adam and Eve hid themselves from the Lord’s presence (Gn 3:8). Yet God immediately sought them out and revealed his plan for the ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39766,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels","title_en":"Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels","content_ro":"<h3>Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>1 Peter Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Gospel Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:3, 23<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 3:3, 7<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:4<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 12:33<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 20:29<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:10-12<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 24:25-27<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:13<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 12:35<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:22; 4:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 13:34; 15:12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:4, 7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mk 12:10; Mt 21:42<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:12<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mt 5:16<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:19-20<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 6:32-35<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:25<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 10:11, 14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>3:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 6:27-28<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>4:13<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mt 5:12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>5:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 22:24-27<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>5:5-6<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 14:11; 18:14<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>1 Peter Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Gospel Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:3, 23<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 3:3, 7<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:4<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 12:33<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 20:29<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:10-12<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 24:25-27<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:13<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 12:35<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>1:22; 4:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 13:34; 15:12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:4, 7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mk 12:10; Mt 21:42<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:12<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mt 5:16<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:19-20<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 6:32-35<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>2:25<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Jn 10:11, 14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>3:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 6:27-28<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>4:13<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Mt 5:12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>5:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 22:24-27<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>5:5-6<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lk 14:11; 18:14<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels 1 Peter Reference Gospel Reference 1:3, 23 Jn 3:3, 7 1:4 Lk 12:33 1:8 Jn 20:29 1:10-12 Lk 24:25-27 1:13 Lk 12:35 1:22; 4:8 Jn 13:34; 15:12 2:4, 7 Mk 12:10; Mt 21:42 2:12 Mt 5:16 2:19-20 Lk 6:32-35 2:25 Jn 10:11, 14 3:9 Lk 6:27-28 4:13 Mt 5:12 5:3 Lk 22:24-27 5:5-6 Lk 14:11; 18:14","summary_en":"Similarities between Peter’s Words in 1 Peter and Jesus’ Words in the Gospels 1 Peter Reference Gospel Reference 1:3, 23 Jn 3:3, 7 1:4 Lk 12:33 1:8 Jn 20:29 1:10-12 Lk 24:25-27 1:13 Lk 12:35 1:22; 4:8 Jn 13:34; 15:12 2:4, 7 Mk 12:10; Mt 21:42 2:12 Mt 5:16 2:19-20 Lk 6:32-35 2:25 Jn 10:11, 14 3:9 Lk 6:27-28 4:13 Mt 5:12 5:3 Lk 22:24-27 5:5-6 Lk 14:11; 18:14","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56660,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:12","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","summary_en":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84286,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:12","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","summary_en":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:12","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","summary_en":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:12","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:12-13<\/strong> <em>This is my commandment: Love each other:<\/em> See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his <em>love<\/em> by sacrificing his <em>life<\/em> at the cross.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","summary_en":"15:12-13 This is my commandment: Love each other: See 13:34. • Jesus demonstrated his love by sacrificing his life at the cross.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":7271,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Commandment, the New","title_en":"Commandment, the New","content_ro":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMMANDMENT, The New<\/h3>\n<p>Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, <span>nlt<\/span>). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11-12) but is not called “new” in those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoveasaCommandment\">Love as a Commandment<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had already commanded his disciples to love their enemies (Mt 5:43-45) and to love their neighbors as themselves (Lk 10:25-37). The “new commandment” demanded that Christians love each other. In no sense did it overrule the other two love commands. Jesus’ command to love those within the church was intended to produce a compelling testimony to those outside the church. It would offer them demonstrable proof (1) that his followers were Christlike in their love toward one another; (2) that the basis for vital human community could be found “in Christ”; and (3) that, by extension, what Jesus said about himself and his work was really true (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus chose the word used to describe the OT law, giving similar authority to his new commandment. In fact, the law included commands to love (Lv 19:18, 34; Dt 10:19). The apostle Paul thought of love as the “law of Christ” (Gal 6:2), and James called the love command “the royal law” (Jas 2:8) and “the perfect law of liberty” (1:25; 2:12).<\/p>\n<p>The word “commandment” had another meaning as well. Many Jews in Jesus’ day wrongly supposed that the commandments were given in order that men, by obeying them, could show themselves worthy of God’s blessing (Rom 8:3; Gal 3:2). Jesus made it clear, however, that love was a natural result of God’s blessing, not a necessary condition for it. For Jesus, the commandment expressed how one who is already living in the joy of God’s blessing should act. Disciples were commanded to love in the same sense that branches were “commanded” to bear fruit: the branch by abiding in the vine, the Christian by abiding in Christ (Jn 15:4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatMadeItNew\">What Made It New?<\/p>\n<p>The character of the new commandment comes from the “new covenant” (Jer 31:31-34; Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), which Jesus inaugurated at the Last Supper. Under the new covenant, God “writes” his law on the hearts of believers (Heb 10:16). That is, he actively works in them in the person of the Holy Spirit (Ez 36:27; 2 Cor 3:3), and gives them a new willingness to obey him (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:16). The new commandment of love is the all-embracing, single requirement of the new covenant (Rom 13:8, 10; Gal 5:14). Obedience, therefore, is a gift, because “love is from God; and every one who loves is born of God” (1 Jn 4:7, <span>nasb<\/span>). It is the fruit of faith (3:23) and part of the gospel itself (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>The close relationship between the new covenant and the new commandment may explain partly why the command to love was called “new.” Christ’s incarnation inaugurated a new age. “The darkness is disappearing,” John wrote, “and the true light is already shining” (1 Jn 2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Anticipating his ascension into heaven (Jn 13:33-35), Jesus left one inclusive commandment to preserve his disciples in the new age until its consummation at the Judgment Day (Jn 5:28-29; 1 Jn 4:17). Obedience to the new commandment was supposed to identify them as Jesus’ disciples during his absence (Jn 13:35; 17:21-23). The love command was thus new in the sense that it had a special function in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>What made the age new was that Jesus Christ’s coming had revealed God the Father with an unprecedented and incomparable clarity (Jn 1:18; 10:30; 17:6-8). No prophet had ever been able to say, “Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father” (14:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Therefore Jesus’ demand that the disciples love each other “as I have loved you” (13:34) was, by every human standard, new and astonishing. No human had ever loved perfectly like Jesus (v 1). To follow his example of love, then, was a new commandment. The greatness of Jesus’ love moved him to “lay down his life for his friends” (15:13, <span>niv<\/span>). Accordingly, John drew the conclusion that “we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers” (1 Jn 3:16, <span>niv<\/span>). It follows that love means never shutting one’s heart against another Christian in need (v 17), but rather rejoicing to sacrifice one’s temporal good for another’s blessing.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","summary_en":"COMMANDMENT, The New Christ’s commandment for Christians to love each other. The phrase “new commandment” occurs four times in the NT, all in the writings of John (Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 2:7, 8; 2 Jn 1:5). Initially, it was a command given by Jesus to his disciples on the night of his arrest: “I am giving you a new commandment: Love each other. Just as I have loved you, you should love each other” (Jn 13:34, nlt). The same command occurs elsewhere (Jn 15:12, 17; Rom 13:8; 1 Pt 1:22; 1 Jn 3:11, 23; 4:...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":12817,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Friends","title_en":"Friends","content_ro":"<h3>FRIENDS<\/h3>\n<p>Term used to indicate close acquaintances. Since Jesus called his disciples friends (Lk 12:4; Jn 15:14-15), it would have been natural for Christians to refer to themselves as “the friends of Christ,” especially since such terminology was used for members of philosophical groups in the Greek world. But no such terminology emerged.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FRIENDS<\/h3>\n<p>Term used to indicate close acquaintances. Since Jesus called his disciples friends (Lk 12:4; Jn 15:14-15), it would have been natural for Christians to refer to themselves as “the friends of Christ,” especially since such terminology was used for members of philosophical groups in the Greek world. But no such terminology emerged.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FRIENDS Term used to indicate close acquaintances. Since Jesus called his disciples friends (Lk 12:4; Jn 15:14-15), it would have been natural for Christians to refer to themselves as “the friends of Christ,” especially since such terminology was used for members of philosophical groups in the Greek world. But no such terminology emerged.","summary_en":"FRIENDS Term used to indicate close acquaintances. Since Jesus called his disciples friends (Lk 12:4; Jn 15:14-15), it would have been natural for Christians to refer to themselves as “the friends of Christ,” especially since such terminology was used for members of philosophical groups in the Greek world. But no such terminology emerged.","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56661,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:14","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","summary_en":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84287,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:14","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","summary_en":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:14","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","summary_en":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:14","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>15:14-16<\/strong> Both Abraham and Moses were called <em>friends<\/em> of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","summary_en":"15:14-16 Both Abraham and Moses were called friends of God (Exod 33:11; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 41:8; Jas 2:23). This is the highest relationship possible between God and a person. Jesus chooses his friends (John 15:16), who demonstrate their friendship by obeying him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":56662,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:15","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:15","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","summary_en":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84288,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:15","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:15","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","summary_en":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:15","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:15","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","summary_en":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:15","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:15","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:15<\/strong> The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or <em>slaves<\/em>. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his <em>friends<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","summary_en":"15:15 The disciples of a rabbi were considered his servants or slaves. Jesus elevated his followers to a higher relationship as his friends.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":10405,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Election Elect","title_en":"Election Elect","content_ro":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","summary_en":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28567,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ordination Ordain","title_en":"Ordination Ordain","content_ro":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","summary_en":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61588,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89214,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116840,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144466,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Land","title_en":"The Land","content_ro":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Land<\/h3>\n<p>Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “special possession” (Deut 4:21), given by God, who required their fidelity (Deut 4:40). God expected the people to be proper stewards of the land and to serve him faithfully.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, God’s people turned to their own ways, serving pagan gods and themselves (2 Kgs 17:7-17). So God allowed foreign nations to gradually take away Israel’s ownership of the land (e.g., 2 Kgs 8:20-22; 13:1-3; 17:3). Eventually, Assyria launched a full-scale invasion of the northern kingdom, sending the Israelites into exile (17:5-6, 22-23). Through these events God warned the people of Judah, the southern kingdom, that if they, too, failed to respond, they would forfeit their land (2 Kgs 21:8). Sadly, they refused to listen (2 Kgs 21:9), and their unfaithfulness eventually resulted in expulsion from the land at the hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s rebellion and failure to properly manage the land that God entrusted to them serves as a warning to us. God has redeemed us in Christ Jesus so that we may live faithful and productive lives (John 15:16; Eph 2:4-10). Our infidelity and lack of productivity may cause us to lose our place of service for Christ (John 15:1-2, 6). It is by abiding in him that we “produce much fruit” and grow in our faith (John 15:5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s people always have a propensity to sin (see Rom 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8, 10). Nevertheless, God always stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn back to him (see 1 Jn 1:9) and to reinstate the blessings of his covenant. The one who mediates the new covenant between God and his people (Matt 26:27-28) is also their advocate in heaven (1 Jn 2:1). In the end, those who remain faithful to God will inherit the blessings of the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet 1:3-5; Rev 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68; 1 Kgs 8:29-51; 9:3-9; 2 Kgs 17:18-23; Pss 24:1; 89:11; 1 Pet 1:4; Rev 21:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","summary_en":"The Land Land is extremely important to a largely agrarian society such as ancient Israel. Israel was given the privilege and responsibility of living in the land of Canaan, as a key provision of God’s covenant with them (1 Kgs 8:33-40; see also Deut 28). The land was part of Israel’s relationship with God: God had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17). The nation of Israel lived in the land as its custodians and earthly possessors. The land was Israel’s “sp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":20231,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel of John","title_en":"Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","summary_en":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":8208,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Crucifixion","title_en":"Crucifixion","content_ro":"<h3>CRUCIFIXION<\/h3>\n<p>Form of execution employed in the death of Jesus Christ. Two concepts related to crucifixion occur in Scripture: the “cross,” a pagan mode of capital punishment, and the “tree,” which was a Jewish form. Jesus’ crucifixion was the means by which he procured atonement for humanity. The term “cross” was also used figuratively by Jesus to portray the sacrifice required in discipleship, and it was used by the apostle Paul to symbolize the death of self in the process of transformation.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Background<\/p>\n<p>• Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>• The Theological Significance of Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalBackground\">Historical Background<\/p>\n<h5>The Pagan Mode<\/h5>\n<p>Literally, the word “cross” in Greek referred to a pointed stake used for various purposes, including an instrument of execution. It could be an upright stake, used to impale a victim, or a vertical stake with a crossbeam either across the top (T) or across the middle (+), used to hang or crucify a criminal, with the added disgrace of public display. Evidently crucifixion was practiced first by the Medes and Persians and later by Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>), the Carthaginians, and the Romans. Both Greeks and Romans restricted its use to slaves, considering it too barbaric for citizens. In the imperial era the Romans extended the use to foreigners, but even so it was used mainly for crimes against the state.<\/p>\n<p>Crucifixion was universally recognized as the most horrible type of execution. In the East, in fact, it was used only as a further sign of disgrace for prisoners already executed, usually by decapitation. In the West the condemned criminal was scourged (whipped), usually at the place of execution, and forced to carry the crossbeam to the spot where a stake had already been erected. A tablet stating the crime was often placed around the offender’s neck and was fastened to the cross after the execution. The prisoner was commonly tied or sometimes nailed to the crossbeam (with the nails through the wrists, since the bones in the hand could not take the weight). The beam was then raised and fixed to the upright pole. If the executioners wished a particularly slow, agonizing death, they might drive blocks or pins into the stake for a seat or a step to support the feet. Death came about either through loss of blood circulation followed by coronary failure or through the collapse of one’s lungs, causing suffocation. That could take days, so often the victim’s legs would be broken below the knees with a club, causing massive shock and eliminating any further possibility of easing the pressure on the bound or spiked wrists. Usually a body was left on the cross to rot, but in some instances was given to relatives or friends for burial.<\/p>\n<h5>The Jewish Mode<\/h5>\n<p>A different form of crucifixion is seen in the OT. King Saul’s body was decapitated and affixed to a wall by the Philistines (1 Sm 31:9-10). The Persian king Darius made impaling the penalty for altering his decree (Ezr 6:11). According to Deuteronomy 21:22-23, the Eastern form was employed by the Jews with the added proviso that the body must be removed from “the tree” before nightfall, because the victim was “accursed by God” (cf. Gal 3:13) and must not remain to “defile the land.” The Roman form of crucifixion was not employed by the Jews. The only exception was a mass crucifixion of 800 rebels by the Jewish ruler Alexander Janneus in 76 <span>BC<\/span>, reported by the Jewish historian Josephus as being universally condemned by the Jews. Some believe that Jewish courts did practice the Western method of crucifixion after the second century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristsCrucifixion\">Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>The NT (quoted in this article from the <span>rsv<\/span>) has much to say about Christ’s crucifixion because it is the central theme of the Christian faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Predictions<\/h5>\n<p>The Gospels record three predictions by Christ of his own crucifixion (Mk 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34 and parallel passages). In addition, John recorded three sayings about the Son of Man being “lifted up” (Jn 3:14; 8:28; 12:32-33), which parallel the synoptic predictions. Several themes are interwoven into those passages: (1) Christ’s passion (a term used for his suffering on the cross) was part of God’s redemptive purpose (Mk 8:31, “must”). (2) Both Jew and Roman were guilty of “delivering” and of “killing” Jesus. (3) His death would be followed by vindication via the resurrection. (4) His death itself, in a paradoxical way, was seen as a means of his entering into “glory” (seen in the symbolism John attached to “lifted up”). Other sayings that hint at Jesus’ fate are his comment about the murder of the prophets (Mt 23:29-30; Lk 13:33), his parables about the death of the prophets and the “son” (the marriage feast, Mt 22:1-14; the wicked tenants, Mk 12:1-10), and his teachings about the coming similar suffering of his disciples (Mt 10:24-28; Mk 8:34-35; Jn 15:18-25).<\/p>\n<h5>The Historical Event<\/h5>\n<p>The crucifixion of Jesus combined Roman and Jewish elements. Although the Gospel writers stressed Jewish guilt for their own polemical purposes, they were careful to distinguish between the leaders and the common people. It was the leaders who initiated Jesus’ arrest (Mk 14:43) and his trial by the Sanhedrin (vv 53-64). Though Pilate seemed to vacillate and in the end surrendered weakly to the crowds by “washing his hands” of any guilt (Mt 27:24), Rome was clearly implicated in the Crucifixion. Since the Sanhedrin did not have the power to inflict capital punishment, Pilate’s decision was necessary before crucifixion could occur. Further, Romans actually carried out the execution.<\/p>\n<p>At Jesus’ crucifixion Roman custom was observed in his scourging, his mock enthronement and stripping, the bearing of his own crossbeam, his being nailed to the cross, and the breaking of the two thieves’ legs. The elevated site fits the custom of displaying certain criminals publicly. So does the height of Jesus’ cross, probably seven to nine feet (2 to 3 meters). The presence of a tablet bearing the inscription “The King of the Jews” on the cross suggests that the crossbeam was fixed somewhere below the top of the stake. Jewish elements are seen in the wine mixed with myrrh (Mk 15:23), the vinegar on the hyssop reed (v 36), and the removal of the body before sunset and the beginning of the Sabbath (Jn 19:31).<\/p>\n<p>Although the fact of Jesus’ crucifixion is seldom challenged historically, the varying details in the four Gospels are sometimes regarded as later additions due to the influence of prophetic “fulfillment,” to Christian-Jewish polemics or to cultic considerations. However, one cannot conclude from the differences in the Gospel accounts that the details are not historical. Narrative selectivity on the part of the Gospel writers is in no sense evidence of fabrication.<\/p>\n<h5>The Emphasis in Each Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The elements found in the individual passion narratives were selected by each writer to present a particular view of the crucifixion scene. It has been realized for some time that the Gospel writers were not only historians but also theologians, selecting scenes and portraying them to show the significance of the events for the Christian faith. Their selection is poignantly evident in the crucifixion narratives.<\/p>\n<p>Mark and Matthew both show the horror of the Messiah being put to death by human beings. The first half of Mark’s scene contrasts the taunts of the crowd with the true significance of Jesus’ death. The twofold “save yourself” (Mk 15:29-31) repeats Jesus’ words about rebuilding the temple in three days—prophetically pointing to the resurrection. The second half of Mark’s description stresses the horror of the scene, progressing from a darkness motif to the cry of abandonment to further taunts (vv 33-36).<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Matthew extends Mark’s imagery in certain important directions, adding that Jesus refused the stupefying drink (a drugged wine to alleviate pain) “when he tasted it” (Mt 27:34), as well as adding “yielded up his spirit” to the death scene (v 50). Matthew thus emphasizes that Jesus voluntarily faced his death fully conscious and in complete control of himself. Matthew’s irony and allusion also bring out the disparity between Jesus’ suffering and his vindication. Elements of vindication include the ripping of the temple veil (v 51) and the centurion’s testimony (v 54). In the remarkable supernatural scene of Matthew 27:52-53, Jesus’ death is followed immediately by an earthquake that opened tombs and revived “many bodies of the saints” who had died. For Matthew those events and others inaugurated the last days, the new age of salvation, when the power of death is broken and life is made available for all.<\/p>\n<p>The account in Luke’s Gospel is also quite remarkable. It has two major thrusts. First, Jesus is portrayed as the perfect example of the righteous martyr who forgives his enemies and by his attitude converts some of his opponents. The taunts of the rulers and soldiers are reversed when the crowd returns home “beating their breasts” (Lk 23:48) and the centurion cries, “Certainly this man was innocent!” (v 47). Second, in Luke the entire setting has an atmosphere of reverence and worship. Omitted are the wine and myrrh, the cry of abandonment, and the Elijah taunt. Other episodes are noted instead—in particular, the prayers of Jesus. In Luke alone are related (1) Jesus’ prayer that God forgive his executioners, placing it in contrast with the soldiers’ mockery; (2) the promise in answer to the prayer of the “believing” criminal; and (3) the commitment of Jesus’ spirit to the Father. Luke’s presentation makes the Crucifixion a kind of worshipful commemoration.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John also one finds a change of theological focus. It goes further than Luke in removing shocking details such as the darkness and the taunts. Calm pervades throughout. Stress is laid on Jesus’ sovereign control of his situation, as the Crucifixion virtually becomes a coronation procession. John alone states that the inscription on the cross was written in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek—the charge thus becomes a worldwide proclamation of Christ’s enthronement. The inscription, “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews,” continues Pilate’s dialogue on kingship beyond Jesus’ trial. John thus adds to Matthew’s emphasis: Jesus has not only become king but has been sovereign all along. The king is pictured as performing the priestly function and himself becoming the sacrifice. John alone mentions the hyssop (which had been used to sprinkle the blood of the lamb at the Passover, Ex 12:22) and Jesus’ cry, “It is finished” (Jn 19:29-30). Further, the piercing of Jesus’ side (vv 31-37), which shows the reality of his death, may also be seen symbolically, along with the “rivers of living water” (7:37-38), as typifying the outpouring of life in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, each Gospel pictures the meaning of Jesus’ death from a different vantage point. To combine their pictures gives new understanding of the significance of the cross. Rather than contradiction, one sees separate parts of a compelling whole.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologicalSignificanceofChristsCrucifixion\">The Theological Significance of Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>The cross plays a dual role in Christian theology. Some theologians emphasize the significance of the historical crucifixion of Jesus Christ and what it accomplished for the believer. Others focus on the symbolism of the cross in each believer’s life.<\/p>\n<p>The death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth are the central events of Christian theology. The cross has meaning because of the significance of the person who was put to death on it and because of what his death accomplished. “The word of the cross” was central in the salvation proclamation of the early church. Above all, the event of the cross was God’s principal saving act in history; hence the cross, though a past event, has present significance. Christ crucified and risen is the core of the church’s message (Gal 3:1).<\/p>\n<p>The central passage is 1 Corinthians 1:17–2:5. There the “word of the cross” (1:18) is contrasted with “eloquent wisdom” (v 17). Sounding like foolishness, it is offensive to both Greek philosophy and Jewish legalism (cf. Gal 6:12-15), but that very “weakness” in human eyes opens the door for the “power of God” (1 Cor 1:18). The cross in the church’s <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kerygma<\/span> (proclamation) illustrates the pattern of God’s action: he forges out of the debilitated things of life both power and wisdom (vv 26-30). Because philosophical speculation replaces God’s message with human wisdom and thus empties the cross of its significance, Paul rejected “lofty words” and preached only the “crucified Christ.” The “Holy Spirit’s power” thus became evident in Paul’s “weakness” (2:1-5). The central core of the gospel is God’s demonstration of victory emerging from seeming defeat, of power arising out of infirmity.<\/p>\n<p>The cross as the basis of atonement is the principal emphasis in the Epistles (see Eph 2:16; Col 1:20; 2:14), whereas in the book of Acts the resurrection seems more central (see Acts 2:33-36; 3:19-26; 13:37-39). The reason for the different emphasis is found in the different purposes of those writings: the cross tends to be used in didactic (instructional) sections, the resurrection in apologetic (persuasive) or kerygmatic sections, when the basis for salvation is being presented. In actuality they were a single event in salvation history. Jesus “was put to death for our trespasses and raised for our justification” (Rom 4:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul expressed the significance of the cross in the words “redemption,” “propitiation,” and “justification.” The first two concepts have the “for us” theme traceable to the suffering servant (Is 53:10-12), whose death was for “the sin of many.” The idea of redemption in both Testaments is the payment of a price to “ransom” those held captive. That price, the NT explains, was paid on the cross, and humanity was thereby freed from sin (Mk 10:45; Ti 2:14; 1 Pt 1:18). The connection between Jesus’ death and the substitutionary preposition “instead of” is also seen in Galatians 3:13, which adds to the curse of Deuteronomy 21:23 the interpretation “for us” (cf. Rom 5:10-11, 18; 1 Cor 11:24; Eph 1:7; 2:13). Similarly, Paul’s concept of justification centers on the cross. It is “Christ crucified” who declares humanity righteous and makes freedom from sin possible (Rom 6:6; Gal 2:19-21). Human guilt was transferred to the cross and expiated there, opening up God’s forensic (legal) forgiveness of all who avail themselves of its power (1 Pt 1:18-21; 2:24; 3:18). Finally, the result is “reconciliation”—both vertically, between humans and God (Col 1:20), and horizontally, between previously opposed human forces (e.g., in Eph 2:13-16, between Jew and Gentile).<\/p>\n<p>Beyond the theological meaning of the literal cross on which Jesus Christ was put to death in Judea nearly 2,000 years ago is the symbolic significance of the cross for his followers today.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus made “bearing the cross” a condition of discipleship in five passages. There are two major variants: one, found in the material common to Matthew and Luke (Mt 10:38; Lk 14:27), is phrased negatively (“cannot be my disciple”); the other, which is found in all three synoptic Gospels (Mt 16:24; Mk 8:34; Luke 9:23), is phrased positively (“If anyone would come after me”). Two major motifs are found in the sayings. The major motif comes from the imagery of a condemned man carrying his cross to an execution site; a necessary part of discipleship is a daily (Lk 9:23) willingness to sacrifice all and to suffer for the sake of Christ. The central point is not death but disgrace; the disciple must be ready to become an outcast from society.<\/p>\n<p>Paul extended Christ’s metaphor to the death of self. He may have taken the idea from the early catechism, as seen in the baptismal creed of Romans 6:1-8, which identifies baptism as being “buried with him.” Paul interpreted the Christian’s identification with Christ’s death to mean that “our old self was crucified with him so that the sinful body might be destroyed, and we might no longer be enslaved to sin” (Rom 6:6). As further developed in 2 Corinthians 5:14-17, the believer participates in the death and resurrection of Christ, so that the old life has passed away and the new has come (5:17). The same view is found also in Galatians, which contrasts the mystical death of self to the legalistic system of the Judaizers. The believer is “crucified with Christ,” with the result that “it is no longer I who live” (Gal 2:20); “the flesh with its passions and desires” is “crucified” (5:24); and “far be it from me to glory except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by which the world has been crucified to me, and I to the world” (6:14). Believers must experience the cross before they can find the resurrection life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Criminal Law and Punishment; Eli, Eli, Lema Sabachthani; Golgotha; Redeemer, Redemption; Seven Last Sayings of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRUCIFIXION<\/h3>\n<p>Form of execution employed in the death of Jesus Christ. Two concepts related to crucifixion occur in Scripture: the “cross,” a pagan mode of capital punishment, and the “tree,” which was a Jewish form. Jesus’ crucifixion was the means by which he procured atonement for humanity. The term “cross” was also used figuratively by Jesus to portray the sacrifice required in discipleship, and it was used by the apostle Paul to symbolize the death of self in the process of transformation.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Background<\/p>\n<p>• Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>• The Theological Significance of Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalBackground\">Historical Background<\/p>\n<h5>The Pagan Mode<\/h5>\n<p>Literally, the word “cross” in Greek referred to a pointed stake used for various purposes, including an instrument of execution. It could be an upright stake, used to impale a victim, or a vertical stake with a crossbeam either across the top (T) or across the middle (+), used to hang or crucify a criminal, with the added disgrace of public display. Evidently crucifixion was practiced first by the Medes and Persians and later by Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>), the Carthaginians, and the Romans. Both Greeks and Romans restricted its use to slaves, considering it too barbaric for citizens. In the imperial era the Romans extended the use to foreigners, but even so it was used mainly for crimes against the state.<\/p>\n<p>Crucifixion was universally recognized as the most horrible type of execution. In the East, in fact, it was used only as a further sign of disgrace for prisoners already executed, usually by decapitation. In the West the condemned criminal was scourged (whipped), usually at the place of execution, and forced to carry the crossbeam to the spot where a stake had already been erected. A tablet stating the crime was often placed around the offender’s neck and was fastened to the cross after the execution. The prisoner was commonly tied or sometimes nailed to the crossbeam (with the nails through the wrists, since the bones in the hand could not take the weight). The beam was then raised and fixed to the upright pole. If the executioners wished a particularly slow, agonizing death, they might drive blocks or pins into the stake for a seat or a step to support the feet. Death came about either through loss of blood circulation followed by coronary failure or through the collapse of one’s lungs, causing suffocation. That could take days, so often the victim’s legs would be broken below the knees with a club, causing massive shock and eliminating any further possibility of easing the pressure on the bound or spiked wrists. Usually a body was left on the cross to rot, but in some instances was given to relatives or friends for burial.<\/p>\n<h5>The Jewish Mode<\/h5>\n<p>A different form of crucifixion is seen in the OT. King Saul’s body was decapitated and affixed to a wall by the Philistines (1 Sm 31:9-10). The Persian king Darius made impaling the penalty for altering his decree (Ezr 6:11). According to Deuteronomy 21:22-23, the Eastern form was employed by the Jews with the added proviso that the body must be removed from “the tree” before nightfall, because the victim was “accursed by God” (cf. Gal 3:13) and must not remain to “defile the land.” The Roman form of crucifixion was not employed by the Jews. The only exception was a mass crucifixion of 800 rebels by the Jewish ruler Alexander Janneus in 76 <span>BC<\/span>, reported by the Jewish historian Josephus as being universally condemned by the Jews. Some believe that Jewish courts did practice the Western method of crucifixion after the second century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristsCrucifixion\">Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>The NT (quoted in this article from the <span>rsv<\/span>) has much to say about Christ’s crucifixion because it is the central theme of the Christian faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Predictions<\/h5>\n<p>The Gospels record three predictions by Christ of his own crucifixion (Mk 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34 and parallel passages). In addition, John recorded three sayings about the Son of Man being “lifted up” (Jn 3:14; 8:28; 12:32-33), which parallel the synoptic predictions. Several themes are interwoven into those passages: (1) Christ’s passion (a term used for his suffering on the cross) was part of God’s redemptive purpose (Mk 8:31, “must”). (2) Both Jew and Roman were guilty of “delivering” and of “killing” Jesus. (3) His death would be followed by vindication via the resurrection. (4) His death itself, in a paradoxical way, was seen as a means of his entering into “glory” (seen in the symbolism John attached to “lifted up”). Other sayings that hint at Jesus’ fate are his comment about the murder of the prophets (Mt 23:29-30; Lk 13:33), his parables about the death of the prophets and the “son” (the marriage feast, Mt 22:1-14; the wicked tenants, Mk 12:1-10), and his teachings about the coming similar suffering of his disciples (Mt 10:24-28; Mk 8:34-35; Jn 15:18-25).<\/p>\n<h5>The Historical Event<\/h5>\n<p>The crucifixion of Jesus combined Roman and Jewish elements. Although the Gospel writers stressed Jewish guilt for their own polemical purposes, they were careful to distinguish between the leaders and the common people. It was the leaders who initiated Jesus’ arrest (Mk 14:43) and his trial by the Sanhedrin (vv 53-64). Though Pilate seemed to vacillate and in the end surrendered weakly to the crowds by “washing his hands” of any guilt (Mt 27:24), Rome was clearly implicated in the Crucifixion. Since the Sanhedrin did not have the power to inflict capital punishment, Pilate’s decision was necessary before crucifixion could occur. Further, Romans actually carried out the execution.<\/p>\n<p>At Jesus’ crucifixion Roman custom was observed in his scourging, his mock enthronement and stripping, the bearing of his own crossbeam, his being nailed to the cross, and the breaking of the two thieves’ legs. The elevated site fits the custom of displaying certain criminals publicly. So does the height of Jesus’ cross, probably seven to nine feet (2 to 3 meters). The presence of a tablet bearing the inscription “The King of the Jews” on the cross suggests that the crossbeam was fixed somewhere below the top of the stake. Jewish elements are seen in the wine mixed with myrrh (Mk 15:23), the vinegar on the hyssop reed (v 36), and the removal of the body before sunset and the beginning of the Sabbath (Jn 19:31).<\/p>\n<p>Although the fact of Jesus’ crucifixion is seldom challenged historically, the varying details in the four Gospels are sometimes regarded as later additions due to the influence of prophetic “fulfillment,” to Christian-Jewish polemics or to cultic considerations. However, one cannot conclude from the differences in the Gospel accounts that the details are not historical. Narrative selectivity on the part of the Gospel writers is in no sense evidence of fabrication.<\/p>\n<h5>The Emphasis in Each Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The elements found in the individual passion narratives were selected by each writer to present a particular view of the crucifixion scene. It has been realized for some time that the Gospel writers were not only historians but also theologians, selecting scenes and portraying them to show the significance of the events for the Christian faith. Their selection is poignantly evident in the crucifixion narratives.<\/p>\n<p>Mark and Matthew both show the horror of the Messiah being put to death by human beings. The first half of Mark’s scene contrasts the taunts of the crowd with the true significance of Jesus’ death. The twofold “save yourself” (Mk 15:29-31) repeats Jesus’ words about rebuilding the temple in three days—prophetically pointing to the resurrection. The second half of Mark’s description stresses the horror of the scene, progressing from a darkness motif to the cry of abandonment to further taunts (vv 33-36).<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Matthew extends Mark’s imagery in certain important directions, adding that Jesus refused the stupefying drink (a drugged wine to alleviate pain) “when he tasted it” (Mt 27:34), as well as adding “yielded up his spirit” to the death scene (v 50). Matthew thus emphasizes that Jesus voluntarily faced his death fully conscious and in complete control of himself. Matthew’s irony and allusion also bring out the disparity between Jesus’ suffering and his vindication. Elements of vindication include the ripping of the temple veil (v 51) and the centurion’s testimony (v 54). In the remarkable supernatural scene of Matthew 27:52-53, Jesus’ death is followed immediately by an earthquake that opened tombs and revived “many bodies of the saints” who had died. For Matthew those events and others inaugurated the last days, the new age of salvation, when the power of death is broken and life is made available for all.<\/p>\n<p>The account in Luke’s Gospel is also quite remarkable. It has two major thrusts. First, Jesus is portrayed as the perfect example of the righteous martyr who forgives his enemies and by his attitude converts some of his opponents. The taunts of the rulers and soldiers are reversed when the crowd returns home “beating their breasts” (Lk 23:48) and the centurion cries, “Certainly this man was innocent!” (v 47). Second, in Luke the entire setting has an atmosphere of reverence and worship. Omitted are the wine and myrrh, the cry of abandonment, and the Elijah taunt. Other episodes are noted instead—in particular, the prayers of Jesus. In Luke alone are related (1) Jesus’ prayer that God forgive his executioners, placing it in contrast with the soldiers’ mockery; (2) the promise in answer to the prayer of the “believing” criminal; and (3) the commitment of Jesus’ spirit to the Father. Luke’s presentation makes the Crucifixion a kind of worshipful commemoration.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospel of John also one finds a change of theological focus. It goes further than Luke in removing shocking details such as the darkness and the taunts. Calm pervades throughout. Stress is laid on Jesus’ sovereign control of his situation, as the Crucifixion virtually becomes a coronation procession. John alone states that the inscription on the cross was written in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek—the charge thus becomes a worldwide proclamation of Christ’s enthronement. The inscription, “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews,” continues Pilate’s dialogue on kingship beyond Jesus’ trial. John thus adds to Matthew’s emphasis: Jesus has not only become king but has been sovereign all along. The king is pictured as performing the priestly function and himself becoming the sacrifice. John alone mentions the hyssop (which had been used to sprinkle the blood of the lamb at the Passover, Ex 12:22) and Jesus’ cry, “It is finished” (Jn 19:29-30). Further, the piercing of Jesus’ side (vv 31-37), which shows the reality of his death, may also be seen symbolically, along with the “rivers of living water” (7:37-38), as typifying the outpouring of life in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, each Gospel pictures the meaning of Jesus’ death from a different vantage point. To combine their pictures gives new understanding of the significance of the cross. Rather than contradiction, one sees separate parts of a compelling whole.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologicalSignificanceofChristsCrucifixion\">The Theological Significance of Christ’s Crucifixion<\/p>\n<p>The cross plays a dual role in Christian theology. Some theologians emphasize the significance of the historical crucifixion of Jesus Christ and what it accomplished for the believer. Others focus on the symbolism of the cross in each believer’s life.<\/p>\n<p>The death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth are the central events of Christian theology. The cross has meaning because of the significance of the person who was put to death on it and because of what his death accomplished. “The word of the cross” was central in the salvation proclamation of the early church. Above all, the event of the cross was God’s principal saving act in history; hence the cross, though a past event, has present significance. Christ crucified and risen is the core of the church’s message (Gal 3:1).<\/p>\n<p>The central passage is 1 Corinthians 1:17–2:5. There the “word of the cross” (1:18) is contrasted with “eloquent wisdom” (v 17). Sounding like foolishness, it is offensive to both Greek philosophy and Jewish legalism (cf. Gal 6:12-15), but that very “weakness” in human eyes opens the door for the “power of God” (1 Cor 1:18). The cross in the church’s <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kerygma<\/span> (proclamation) illustrates the pattern of God’s action: he forges out of the debilitated things of life both power and wisdom (vv 26-30). Because philosophical speculation replaces God’s message with human wisdom and thus empties the cross of its significance, Paul rejected “lofty words” and preached only the “crucified Christ.” The “Holy Spirit’s power” thus became evident in Paul’s “weakness” (2:1-5). The central core of the gospel is God’s demonstration of victory emerging from seeming defeat, of power arising out of infirmity.<\/p>\n<p>The cross as the basis of atonement is the principal emphasis in the Epistles (see Eph 2:16; Col 1:20; 2:14), whereas in the book of Acts the resurrection seems more central (see Acts 2:33-36; 3:19-26; 13:37-39). The reason for the different emphasis is found in the different purposes of those writings: the cross tends to be used in didactic (instructional) sections, the resurrection in apologetic (persuasive) or kerygmatic sections, when the basis for salvation is being presented. In actuality they were a single event in salvation history. Jesus “was put to death for our trespasses and raised for our justification” (Rom 4:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul expressed the significance of the cross in the words “redemption,” “propitiation,” and “justification.” The first two concepts have the “for us” theme traceable to the suffering servant (Is 53:10-12), whose death was for “the sin of many.” The idea of redemption in both Testaments is the payment of a price to “ransom” those held captive. That price, the NT explains, was paid on the cross, and humanity was thereby freed from sin (Mk 10:45; Ti 2:14; 1 Pt 1:18). The connection between Jesus’ death and the substitutionary preposition “instead of” is also seen in Galatians 3:13, which adds to the curse of Deuteronomy 21:23 the interpretation “for us” (cf. Rom 5:10-11, 18; 1 Cor 11:24; Eph 1:7; 2:13). Similarly, Paul’s concept of justification centers on the cross. It is “Christ crucified” who declares humanity righteous and makes freedom from sin possible (Rom 6:6; Gal 2:19-21). Human guilt was transferred to the cross and expiated there, opening up God’s forensic (legal) forgiveness of all who avail themselves of its power (1 Pt 1:18-21; 2:24; 3:18). Finally, the result is “reconciliation”—both vertically, between humans and God (Col 1:20), and horizontally, between previously opposed human forces (e.g., in Eph 2:13-16, between Jew and Gentile).<\/p>\n<p>Beyond the theological meaning of the literal cross on which Jesus Christ was put to death in Judea nearly 2,000 years ago is the symbolic significance of the cross for his followers today.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus made “bearing the cross” a condition of discipleship in five passages. There are two major variants: one, found in the material common to Matthew and Luke (Mt 10:38; Lk 14:27), is phrased negatively (“cannot be my disciple”); the other, which is found in all three synoptic Gospels (Mt 16:24; Mk 8:34; Luke 9:23), is phrased positively (“If anyone would come after me”). Two major motifs are found in the sayings. The major motif comes from the imagery of a condemned man carrying his cross to an execution site; a necessary part of discipleship is a daily (Lk 9:23) willingness to sacrifice all and to suffer for the sake of Christ. The central point is not death but disgrace; the disciple must be ready to become an outcast from society.<\/p>\n<p>Paul extended Christ’s metaphor to the death of self. He may have taken the idea from the early catechism, as seen in the baptismal creed of Romans 6:1-8, which identifies baptism as being “buried with him.” Paul interpreted the Christian’s identification with Christ’s death to mean that “our old self was crucified with him so that the sinful body might be destroyed, and we might no longer be enslaved to sin” (Rom 6:6). As further developed in 2 Corinthians 5:14-17, the believer participates in the death and resurrection of Christ, so that the old life has passed away and the new has come (5:17). The same view is found also in Galatians, which contrasts the mystical death of self to the legalistic system of the Judaizers. The believer is “crucified with Christ,” with the result that “it is no longer I who live” (Gal 2:20); “the flesh with its passions and desires” is “crucified” (5:24); and “far be it from me to glory except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by which the world has been crucified to me, and I to the world” (6:14). Believers must experience the cross before they can find the resurrection life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Criminal Law and Punishment; Eli, Eli, Lema Sabachthani; Golgotha; Redeemer, Redemption; Seven Last Sayings of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRUCIFIXION Form of execution employed in the death of Jesus Christ. Two concepts related to crucifixion occur in Scripture: the “cross,” a pagan mode of capital punishment, and the “tree,” which was a Jewish form. Jesus’ crucifixion was the means by which he procured atonement for humanity. The term “cross” was also used figuratively by Jesus to portray the sacrifice required in discipleship, and it was used by the apostle Paul to symbolize the death of self in the process of transformation....","summary_en":"CRUCIFIXION Form of execution employed in the death of Jesus Christ. Two concepts related to crucifixion occur in Scripture: the “cross,” a pagan mode of capital punishment, and the “tree,” which was a Jewish form. Jesus’ crucifixion was the means by which he procured atonement for humanity. The term “cross” was also used figuratively by Jesus to portray the sacrifice required in discipleship, and it was used by the apostle Paul to symbolize the death of self in the process of transformation....","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29707,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38699,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"World","title_en":"World","content_ro":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","summary_en":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56663,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:18","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:18","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","summary_en":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84289,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:18","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:18","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","summary_en":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:18","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:18","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","summary_en":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:18","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:18","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:18-27<\/strong> Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","summary_en":"15:18-27 Disciples must be like their master in every respect, both in showing love and obedience and in experiencing the antagonism of those who oppose their message (15:20-21; see 9:1-41; 11:16). If the darkness is opposed to the light (1:5), and if Jesus’ followers are bearers of that light in the world (1 Jn 1:7; 2:9), they should expect the world to hate them in the way it hated Jesus (see John 17:14). Jesus’ disciples share his separation from and conflict with the world.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64461,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66056,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92087,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93682,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119713,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121308,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147339,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148934,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":29733,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38686,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"World","title_en":"World","content_ro":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","summary_en":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64045,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91671,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119297,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146923,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","title_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of a Second Exodus<\/h3>\n<p>Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transforms the desert into a watering hole with vegetation and animals (43:19-20), removes obstacles along the way (42:16; 49:11), guides his people through the desert (42:16; 58:11; 63:13), feeds them (49:10), protects them from the desert heat (49:10), and strengthens them (58:11). He changes the experience of the exiles from sorrow to great joy (51:3) and pours out his Spirit on them (44:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>An exodus of sorts also occurs for all those who believe in Christ—an exodus from sin and death through Christ’s death and the power of his resurrection. The Holy Spirit enables believers to live in newness of life and to serve God with joy as they await the coming of his kingdom in all its fullness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 35:8-10; 42:14-16; 43:18-21; 44:3-4; 48:20-21; 49:9-12; 52:11-12; 58:8-12; Jer 31:2-17; Joel 3:17-21; Luke 1:78-79; John 7:38; 15:19; 2 Cor 5:17; 6:17-18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:13; Heb 13:12-14; Rev 7:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","summary_en":"The Promise of a Second Exodus Like the exodus from Egypt, Israel’s return from exile would restore God’s people to the land. Just as they had left Egypt many years before, the people of Israel would leave Babylon (Isa 48:20-21). This time they would have to be cleansed (52:11) and would not rush their departure (52:12). Both the experience in exile and the journey are likened to a desert (see 35:1) from which the Lord would bring rescue. He prepares a road through the desert (43:19), transfo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":56664,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","summary_en":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84290,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","summary_en":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111916,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","summary_en":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:20<\/strong> <em>A slave is not greater than the master:<\/em> See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","summary_en":"15:20 A slave is not greater than the master: See study note on 13:16. Jesus’ disciples should mirror him in every way, even in his experience of persecution and martyrdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60183,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62419,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64195,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Protects His Servant","title_en":"God Protects His Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","summary_en":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87809,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90045,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91821,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Protects His Servant","title_en":"God Protects His Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","summary_en":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115435,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117671,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119447,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Protects His Servant","title_en":"God Protects His Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","summary_en":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143061,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145297,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\n<p>Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Even in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\n<p>We are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147073,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Protects His Servant","title_en":"God Protects His Servant","content_ro":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Protects His Servant<\/h3>\n<p>When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19).<\/p>\n<p>During Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). Hostility from the king and his officials surfaced quickly, and Jeremiah suddenly found his life in danger. But the Lord reassured him of divine protection (see 11:18-23). That promise seemed to be contradicted when Pashhur arrested Jeremiah, had him whipped, and placed him in stocks (20:1-2). Jeremiah rebuked the Lord for seemingly misleading him, but he soon regained his trust in the Lord (20:7-13). On another occasion early in Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah was arrested and placed on trial (ch 26). The Lord fulfilled his promise to strengthen Jeremiah inwardly, which allowed the prophet to remain calm. Physical protection came from some elders in the community who had served under King Josiah. They reminded the group of Hezekiah’s response to danger a century before, and Ahikam saved Jeremiah’s life (26:24). Jeremiah then went into hiding when Jehoiakim’s officers sought to kill him, and the Lord allowed Jeremiah to remain hidden until after Jehoiakim’s death (36:19-20, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The new king, Zedekiah, was kinder to Jeremiah; nonetheless, Jeremiah’s life was in danger several times during the siege of Jerusalem. At one point, the king’s officials cast him into a muddy cistern. God protected Jeremiah by prompting a foreigner, Ebed-melech, to rescue the prophet. Zedekiah then placed Jeremiah in protective custody (ch 38).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah survived the fall of Jerusalem, though he was almost taken captive to Babylon. God prompted the Babylonian general to release Jeremiah from bondage and to give him a choice between going to Babylon as a free man and staying with Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor of Judah (39:11-14; 40:1-6). God also protected Jeremiah from Johanan and his companions, who took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt against their will (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>God faithfully kept his promises to Jeremiah, as he still faithfully keeps his promises to all his people. He does not always promise to physically protect those who serve him (see 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; 1 Pet 2:21-23; 3:14-17; Rev 14:12), but he does promise eternal salvation to those who trust in him (Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6-9; 4:12-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 20:3-7; 31:24; Num 14:10-35; 2 Kgs 6:14-20; Job 1:9-11; Ps 91:1-16; Jer 1:18-19; 11:18-23; 20:1-2, 7-13; 26:24; 36:19-20, 26; 39:11-14; Matt 2:13-22; 10:28-31; John 15:20; Acts 12:1-11; 2 Cor 6:4-5; 2 Tim 2:10-13; 3:11-13; Heb 11:4-37; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 1:6; 3:14-17; 4:12-19; Rev 14:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","summary_en":"God Protects His Servant When God called Jeremiah as his messenger, he promised to protect him. One aspect of this protection was spiritual, as the Lord gave Jeremiah the inner strength of a fortified city (Jer 1:18). God’s protection was also physical: “They will fight you, but they will fail” (1:19). During Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC), Jeremiah did not encounter much personal danger, but the situation changed dramatically when Jehoiakim came to power (609–598 BC). Hostility from the king an...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":56665,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:22","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:22","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","summary_en":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84291,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:22","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:22","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","summary_en":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111917,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:22","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:22","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","summary_en":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139543,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:22","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:22","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>15:22-24<\/strong> <em>But now they have no excuse:<\/em> Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","summary_en":"15:22-24 But now they have no excuse: Jesus’ ministry provided both words (15:22) and works (15:24) as evidence that pointed to God. Once people have heard and seen him, they are accountable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":16615,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Honor","title_en":"Honor","content_ro":"<h3>HONOR<\/h3>\n<p>Good reputation, respect, purity, integrity.<\/p>\n<p>To the ancient world, the concept of honor was frequently linked to one’s tangible possessions. The honor of Odysseus was bound up with the restoration of his material goods; Achilles’ honor was dependent upon the gifts given him. Later, the word acquired the strong ethical nature we now associate with it. Plato was among the earliest to establish the personal moral element of honor, what he called “inward honor.” The distinctions accorded a man by the world—“outward honors”—were not of the same value as a virtuous person’s inner worth. The Romans as well as the Greeks placed great emphasis on the indispensable role of honor in an individual’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Only in the Bible, however, do we gain a true perspective on honor. The OT required children to honor their parents (Ex 20:12), a command that reappears in the ethic of the NT (Eph 6:1-2). Undergirding such action is an even more basic obligation: the giving of honor to God, who worthily merits our devoted obedience (Rv 4:11). Proverbs 3:9 presents the law’s requirement that one should honor the Lord with his gifts and with the firstfruits of his entire harvest. Honoring God, then, is expressed in the commitment of both life and possessions to the Lord’s service.<\/p>\n<p>That people do not honor God as they should is a lamentable truth of Scripture. In all of history only Jesus Christ truly honored the Father by submitting himself totally to the divine will. His submission led him to the cross, the means whereby Christ is now extremely exalted (Is 52:13–53:12). God the Father raised Christ to his permanent position as our great High Priest, an honor of incalculable significance (Heb 5:4-5). Jesus taught that the one who serves him would also be honored by his Father (Jn 12:26); conversely, those who reject him also reject God the Father (15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Christians are called upon to honor one another—that is, each is to consider his fellow believer more worthy of esteem than himself (Rom 12:10). This orientation receives impetus from the affirmation of 1 Peter 1:7, where Christians are said to possess honor. Showing honor to others should affect one’s entire lifestyle. Husbands are to give honor to their wives by showing loving regard for them (1 Pt 3:7). Christian servants are expected to show honor to their masters so as to affirm the cause of Christ (1 Tm 6:1). Beyond the immediate community of the redeemed, too, honor must be appropriately displayed by all those who revere the teaching of Scripture (Rom 13:7; 1 Pt 2:17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HONOR<\/h3>\n<p>Good reputation, respect, purity, integrity.<\/p>\n<p>To the ancient world, the concept of honor was frequently linked to one’s tangible possessions. The honor of Odysseus was bound up with the restoration of his material goods; Achilles’ honor was dependent upon the gifts given him. Later, the word acquired the strong ethical nature we now associate with it. Plato was among the earliest to establish the personal moral element of honor, what he called “inward honor.” The distinctions accorded a man by the world—“outward honors”—were not of the same value as a virtuous person’s inner worth. The Romans as well as the Greeks placed great emphasis on the indispensable role of honor in an individual’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Only in the Bible, however, do we gain a true perspective on honor. The OT required children to honor their parents (Ex 20:12), a command that reappears in the ethic of the NT (Eph 6:1-2). Undergirding such action is an even more basic obligation: the giving of honor to God, who worthily merits our devoted obedience (Rv 4:11). Proverbs 3:9 presents the law’s requirement that one should honor the Lord with his gifts and with the firstfruits of his entire harvest. Honoring God, then, is expressed in the commitment of both life and possessions to the Lord’s service.<\/p>\n<p>That people do not honor God as they should is a lamentable truth of Scripture. In all of history only Jesus Christ truly honored the Father by submitting himself totally to the divine will. His submission led him to the cross, the means whereby Christ is now extremely exalted (Is 52:13–53:12). God the Father raised Christ to his permanent position as our great High Priest, an honor of incalculable significance (Heb 5:4-5). Jesus taught that the one who serves him would also be honored by his Father (Jn 12:26); conversely, those who reject him also reject God the Father (15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Christians are called upon to honor one another—that is, each is to consider his fellow believer more worthy of esteem than himself (Rom 12:10). This orientation receives impetus from the affirmation of 1 Peter 1:7, where Christians are said to possess honor. Showing honor to others should affect one’s entire lifestyle. Husbands are to give honor to their wives by showing loving regard for them (1 Pt 3:7). Christian servants are expected to show honor to their masters so as to affirm the cause of Christ (1 Tm 6:1). Beyond the immediate community of the redeemed, too, honor must be appropriately displayed by all those who revere the teaching of Scripture (Rom 13:7; 1 Pt 2:17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HONOR Good reputation, respect, purity, integrity. To the ancient world, the concept of honor was frequently linked to one’s tangible possessions. The honor of Odysseus was bound up with the restoration of his material goods; Achilles’ honor was dependent upon the gifts given him. Later, the word acquired the strong ethical nature we now associate with it. Plato was among the earliest to establish the personal moral element of honor, what he called “inward honor.” The distinctions accorded a ...","summary_en":"HONOR Good reputation, respect, purity, integrity. To the ancient world, the concept of honor was frequently linked to one’s tangible possessions. The honor of Odysseus was bound up with the restoration of his material goods; Achilles’ honor was dependent upon the gifts given him. Later, the word acquired the strong ethical nature we now associate with it. Plato was among the earliest to establish the personal moral element of honor, what he called “inward honor.” The distinctions accorded a ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":65850,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","summary_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93476,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","summary_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121102,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","summary_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148728,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>John, however, does not use the popular term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dunamis<\/span> in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sēmeion<\/span>), an event that has a deeper meaning. John also describes Jesus’ miracles as “works” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">erga<\/span>, see John 10:38; see also 7:3, translated “miracles”; 9:3, translated “power”). Christ’s miracles were part of the work that God gave him to do (17:4), revealing the Father to the world.<\/p>\n<p>John selectively records seven miraculous signs that occurred during Jesus’ ministry: (1) changing water to wine (2:1-11); (2) healing an official’s son (4:46-54); (3) healing a paralyzed man (5:1-17); (4) feeding five thousand (6:1-15); (5) walking on water (6:16-21); (6) healing a blind man (9:1-41); and (7) raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44). John also records a miraculous catch of fish after Jesus’ resurrection (21:4-14). Most of the seven signs were met with belief (2:11; 4:53; 11:45-48). However, Jesus’ purposes extended beyond the signs themselves. The miraculous signs are like physical roadsigns: They are messages that point to a greater reality. Thus, a miraculous sign is usually accompanied by a discourse from Jesus in which he explains the truth that the sign points to. For example, Jesus fed the five thousand not just to meet their needs but also so that people would see him as the bread of life (6:35), given for them when he died on the cross (6:51).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:8-31; 7:3; Num 14:11, 22; Deut 4:34; Pss 74:9; 78:43; Matt 12:38-39; John 2:1-11, 18, 23; 3:2; 4:48, 54; 6:2, 14, 26, 30; 7:31; 9:16; 10:41; 11:47; 12:18, 37; 15:24; 20:30; Acts 2:43; 4:16, 22, 30; 5:12; 8:6; 14:3; 15:12; Rom 15:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","summary_en":"Miraculous Signs in the Gospel of John The Gospels use three words to describe Jesus’ miraculous works. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the Greek word dunamis (“power”) describes an act of raw force that amazes observers and leads to the inevitable conclusion that God must be at work in Jesus (see Mark 6:2). John, however, does not use the popular term dunamis in relation to Jesus’ miracles. Instead, he labels each of Jesus’ miracles as a “sign” (Greek sēmeion), an event that has a deeper meaning...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":56666,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","summary_en":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84292,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","summary_en":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111918,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","summary_en":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139544,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:25<\/strong> <em>They hated me without cause:<\/em> This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","summary_en":"15:25 They hated me without cause: This Old Testament citation reveals the unwarranted anger of those who belong to the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":4684,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible*, Inspiration","title_en":"of the Bible*, Inspiration","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, I<span>nspiration of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, <span>kjv<\/span>). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (<span>niv<\/span>). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God and were written by men. The apostle Peter affirmed this when he said that “no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pt 1:20-21, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Men spoke from God.” This short sentence is the key to understanding how the Bible came into being. Thousands of years ago, God chose certain men—such as Moses, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel—to receive his words and write them down. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the OT. Nearly 2,000 years ago, God chose other men—such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Paul—to communicate his new message, the message of salvation through Jesus Christ. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>God gave his words to these men in many different ways. Certain writers of the OT received messages directly from God. Moses was given the Ten Commandments inscribed on a stone when he was in God’s presence on Mt Sinai. When David was composing his psalms to God, he received divine inspiration to foretell certain events that would occur 1,000 years later in Jesus Christ’s life. God told his prophets—such as Isaiah and Jeremiah—exactly what to say; therefore, when they gave a message, it was God’s word, not their own. This is why many OT prophets often said, “Thus says the Lord.” (This statement appears over 2,000 times in the OT.) To other prophets, such as Ezekiel and Daniel, God communicated his message through visions and dreams. They recorded exactly what they saw, whether they understood it or not. And other OT writers, such as Samuel and Ezra, were directed by God to record events in the history of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Four hundred years after the last book of the OT (Malachi) was written, God’s Son, Jesus Christ, came to earth. In his talks, he affirmed the divine authorship of the OT writings (see Mt 5:17-19; Lk 16:17; Jn 10:35). Furthermore, he often pointed to certain passages in the OT as having predicted certain events in his life (see Lk 24:27, 44). The NT writers also affirmed the divine inspiration of the OT text. It was the apostle Paul who was directed by God to write, “All Scripture is God-inspired.” Quite specifically, he was speaking of the OT. And, as was already noted, Peter said that the OT prophets were motivated by the Holy Spirit to speak from God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT is also a God-inspired book. Before Jesus left this earth and returned to his Father, he told the disciples that he would send the Holy Spirit to them. He told them that one of the functions of the Holy Spirit would be to remind them of all the things that Jesus had said and then to guide them into more truth (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-15). Those who wrote the Gospels were helped by the Holy Spirit to remember Jesus’ exact words, and those who wrote other parts of the NT were guided by the Spirit as they wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for writing the Gospels didn’t begin when the authors set pen to papyrus; the inspiration began when the disciples Matthew, Peter (for whom Mark wrote), and John were enlightened by their encounters with Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The apostles’ experiences with him altered their lives forever, imprinting on their souls unforgettable images of the revealed God-man, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This is what John was speaking of in the prologue to his Gospel when he declared, “The Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory” (1:14, paraphrased). The “we” refers to those eyewitnesses of Jesus’ glory—the apostles who lived with Jesus for over three years. This reminiscence is expanded upon in John’s prologue to his first epistle, where he says “we have heard him, touched him, seen him, and looked upon him” (1 Jn 1:1-2, paraphrased). In both the Gospel and the Epistle, the verbs are in the perfect tense, denoting a past action with a present, abiding effect. Those past encounters with Jesus were never forgotten by John; they lived with him and stayed with him as an inspiring spirit until the day—many years later—he wrote of them in his Gospel. The same could be said for Matthew, who wrote an important Gospel, and Peter, who was really the author behind Mark’s composition. Luke was not an eyewitness, but he based his Gospel on the accounts of those who were (see Lk 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for the writing of the Epistles can also be traced to the writers’ encounters with the living Christ. The most prominent epistle writer, Paul, repeatedly claims that his inspiration and subsequent commission came from his encounter with the risen Christ (see, for example, 1 Cor 15:8-10). Peter also claims that his writings were based upon his experiences with the living Christ (see 1 Pt 5:1; 2 Pt 1:16-18). And so does John, who claims to have experienced the God-man visibly, audibly, and palpably (see 1 Jn 1:1-4). James and Jude make no such claim directly, but since they were the brothers of Jesus who became converts when they saw the risen Christ (this is certain for James—see 1 Cor 15:7—and presumed for Jude—see Acts 1:14), they too drew their inspiration from their encounters with the living Christ. Thus, all the epistle writers (with the possible exception of the one who wrote Hebrews, who is unknown) knew the living Christ. This is the relationship that qualified them to write those books that became part of the NT canon. This made them distinct from all others, no matter how good their writings were.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the NT epistles were inspired by the Spirit when they wrote. Speaking for all the apostles, Paul indicated that the NT apostles were taught by the Holy Spirit what to say. The writers of the NT did not speak with words “taught by human wisdom,” but with “words taught by the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Cor 2:10-13). What they wrote was Spirit-taught. For example, when the apostle John saw that Jesus Christ had come to give eternal life to men, the Spirit helped him express this truth in many different ways. Thus, the reader of John’s Gospel sees different phrases about Jesus giving life: “in him was life,” “a well of living water springing up into eternal life,” “the bread of life,” “the light of life,” “the resurrection and the life,” etc. (see Jn 1:4; 4:14; 6:48; 8:12; 11:25; 14:6). When the apostle Paul contemplated the fullness of Christ’s deity, he was inspired by the Spirit to use such phrasing as “in him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily,” “in him are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge,” and “the unsearchable riches of Christ” (see Col 2:3, 9; Eph 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As the Spirit taught the writers, they used their own vocabulary and writing style to express the thought of the Spirit. As such, the Scriptures came as the result of divine and human cooperation. The Scriptures were not mechanically inspired—as if God used the men as machines through whom he dictated the divine utterance. Rather, the Scriptures were inspired by God, then written by men. The Bible, therefore, is both fully divine and fully human.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, I<span>nspiration of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, <span>kjv<\/span>). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (<span>niv<\/span>). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God and were written by men. The apostle Peter affirmed this when he said that “no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pt 1:20-21, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Men spoke from God.” This short sentence is the key to understanding how the Bible came into being. Thousands of years ago, God chose certain men—such as Moses, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel—to receive his words and write them down. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the OT. Nearly 2,000 years ago, God chose other men—such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Paul—to communicate his new message, the message of salvation through Jesus Christ. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>God gave his words to these men in many different ways. Certain writers of the OT received messages directly from God. Moses was given the Ten Commandments inscribed on a stone when he was in God’s presence on Mt Sinai. When David was composing his psalms to God, he received divine inspiration to foretell certain events that would occur 1,000 years later in Jesus Christ’s life. God told his prophets—such as Isaiah and Jeremiah—exactly what to say; therefore, when they gave a message, it was God’s word, not their own. This is why many OT prophets often said, “Thus says the Lord.” (This statement appears over 2,000 times in the OT.) To other prophets, such as Ezekiel and Daniel, God communicated his message through visions and dreams. They recorded exactly what they saw, whether they understood it or not. And other OT writers, such as Samuel and Ezra, were directed by God to record events in the history of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Four hundred years after the last book of the OT (Malachi) was written, God’s Son, Jesus Christ, came to earth. In his talks, he affirmed the divine authorship of the OT writings (see Mt 5:17-19; Lk 16:17; Jn 10:35). Furthermore, he often pointed to certain passages in the OT as having predicted certain events in his life (see Lk 24:27, 44). The NT writers also affirmed the divine inspiration of the OT text. It was the apostle Paul who was directed by God to write, “All Scripture is God-inspired.” Quite specifically, he was speaking of the OT. And, as was already noted, Peter said that the OT prophets were motivated by the Holy Spirit to speak from God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT is also a God-inspired book. Before Jesus left this earth and returned to his Father, he told the disciples that he would send the Holy Spirit to them. He told them that one of the functions of the Holy Spirit would be to remind them of all the things that Jesus had said and then to guide them into more truth (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-15). Those who wrote the Gospels were helped by the Holy Spirit to remember Jesus’ exact words, and those who wrote other parts of the NT were guided by the Spirit as they wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for writing the Gospels didn’t begin when the authors set pen to papyrus; the inspiration began when the disciples Matthew, Peter (for whom Mark wrote), and John were enlightened by their encounters with Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The apostles’ experiences with him altered their lives forever, imprinting on their souls unforgettable images of the revealed God-man, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This is what John was speaking of in the prologue to his Gospel when he declared, “The Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory” (1:14, paraphrased). The “we” refers to those eyewitnesses of Jesus’ glory—the apostles who lived with Jesus for over three years. This reminiscence is expanded upon in John’s prologue to his first epistle, where he says “we have heard him, touched him, seen him, and looked upon him” (1 Jn 1:1-2, paraphrased). In both the Gospel and the Epistle, the verbs are in the perfect tense, denoting a past action with a present, abiding effect. Those past encounters with Jesus were never forgotten by John; they lived with him and stayed with him as an inspiring spirit until the day—many years later—he wrote of them in his Gospel. The same could be said for Matthew, who wrote an important Gospel, and Peter, who was really the author behind Mark’s composition. Luke was not an eyewitness, but he based his Gospel on the accounts of those who were (see Lk 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for the writing of the Epistles can also be traced to the writers’ encounters with the living Christ. The most prominent epistle writer, Paul, repeatedly claims that his inspiration and subsequent commission came from his encounter with the risen Christ (see, for example, 1 Cor 15:8-10). Peter also claims that his writings were based upon his experiences with the living Christ (see 1 Pt 5:1; 2 Pt 1:16-18). And so does John, who claims to have experienced the God-man visibly, audibly, and palpably (see 1 Jn 1:1-4). James and Jude make no such claim directly, but since they were the brothers of Jesus who became converts when they saw the risen Christ (this is certain for James—see 1 Cor 15:7—and presumed for Jude—see Acts 1:14), they too drew their inspiration from their encounters with the living Christ. Thus, all the epistle writers (with the possible exception of the one who wrote Hebrews, who is unknown) knew the living Christ. This is the relationship that qualified them to write those books that became part of the NT canon. This made them distinct from all others, no matter how good their writings were.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the NT epistles were inspired by the Spirit when they wrote. Speaking for all the apostles, Paul indicated that the NT apostles were taught by the Holy Spirit what to say. The writers of the NT did not speak with words “taught by human wisdom,” but with “words taught by the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Cor 2:10-13). What they wrote was Spirit-taught. For example, when the apostle John saw that Jesus Christ had come to give eternal life to men, the Spirit helped him express this truth in many different ways. Thus, the reader of John’s Gospel sees different phrases about Jesus giving life: “in him was life,” “a well of living water springing up into eternal life,” “the bread of life,” “the light of life,” “the resurrection and the life,” etc. (see Jn 1:4; 4:14; 6:48; 8:12; 11:25; 14:6). When the apostle Paul contemplated the fullness of Christ’s deity, he was inspired by the Spirit to use such phrasing as “in him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily,” “in him are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge,” and “the unsearchable riches of Christ” (see Col 2:3, 9; Eph 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As the Spirit taught the writers, they used their own vocabulary and writing style to express the thought of the Spirit. As such, the Scriptures came as the result of divine and human cooperation. The Scriptures were not mechanically inspired—as if God used the men as machines through whom he dictated the divine utterance. Rather, the Scriptures were inspired by God, then written by men. The Bible, therefore, is both fully divine and fully human.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Inspiration of the Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing. The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, kjv). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (niv). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God a...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Inspiration of the Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing. The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, kjv). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (niv). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God a...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7229,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Comforter*","title_en":"Comforter*","content_ro":"<h3>COMFORTER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parakletos<\/span> in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. <em>See<\/em> Paraclete.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMFORTER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parakletos<\/span> in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. <em>See<\/em> Paraclete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMFORTER* KJV translation of the Greek word parakletos in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. See Paraclete.","summary_en":"COMFORTER* KJV translation of the Greek word parakletos in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. See Paraclete.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7796,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Counselor Counsel","title_en":"Counselor Counsel","content_ro":"<h3>COUNSEL, COUNSELOR<\/h3>\n<p>Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The Bible mentions official counselors in Egypt (Is 19:11) and Babylon (Dn 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>A wise person seeks counsel when making plans: “Plans go wrong for lack of advice; many counselors bring success” (Prv 15:22, <span>nlt<\/span>). One’s counselors may be one’s parents (1:8), older people (Ez 7:26), prophets (2 Chr 25:16), wise men (Jer 18:18), or friends (Prv 27:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). Some counselors are evil, giving deceitful advice (Prv 12:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, God also counsels. He frustrates the counsel of the nations who oppose him (Ps 33:10), but his own counsel endures for many generations (v 11). No one may counsel the Lord (Is 40:13). His Messiah is called “Wonderful Counselor” (9:6).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, the Spirit counsels or comforts believers (Jn 14:16-17). Christ sends the Holy Spirit to his people (16:7), and the Spirit, also called the Spirit of truth, bears witness to Christ (15:26). The ascended Jesus Christ is seen as a counselor in God’s heavenly court (1 Jn 2:1, “advocate”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COUNSEL, COUNSELOR<\/h3>\n<p>Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The Bible mentions official counselors in Egypt (Is 19:11) and Babylon (Dn 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>A wise person seeks counsel when making plans: “Plans go wrong for lack of advice; many counselors bring success” (Prv 15:22, <span>nlt<\/span>). One’s counselors may be one’s parents (1:8), older people (Ez 7:26), prophets (2 Chr 25:16), wise men (Jer 18:18), or friends (Prv 27:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). Some counselors are evil, giving deceitful advice (Prv 12:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, God also counsels. He frustrates the counsel of the nations who oppose him (Ps 33:10), but his own counsel endures for many generations (v 11). No one may counsel the Lord (Is 40:13). His Messiah is called “Wonderful Counselor” (9:6).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, the Spirit counsels or comforts believers (Jn 14:16-17). Christ sends the Holy Spirit to his people (16:7), and the Spirit, also called the Spirit of truth, bears witness to Christ (15:26). The ascended Jesus Christ is seen as a counselor in God’s heavenly court (1 Jn 2:1, “advocate”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COUNSEL, COUNSELOR Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The...","summary_en":"COUNSEL, COUNSELOR Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20232,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel of John","title_en":"Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","summary_en":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28838,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paraclete*","title_en":"Paraclete*","content_ro":"<h3>Paraclete*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s Gospel, all referring to the work of the Holy Spirit (Jn 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:13). In these passages Jesus declares that the Holy Spirit will come from the Father when he departs. The Paraclete, also called “the Spirit of truth,” will lead them into all truth and aid them in their ability to recall correctly Jesus’ message. He is to become their special replacement for the departed Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paraclete*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s Gospel, all referring to the work of the Holy Spirit (Jn 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:13). In these passages Jesus declares that the Holy Spirit will come from the Father when he departs. The Paraclete, also called “the Spirit of truth,” will lead them into all truth and aid them in their ability to recall correctly Jesus’ message. He is to become their special replacement for the departed Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paraclete* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28). The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s ...","summary_en":"Paraclete* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28). The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36204,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","title_en":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37717,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Trinity*","title_en":"Trinity*","content_ro":"<h3>TRINITY*<\/h3>\n<p>Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all the universe (see Jn 5:26; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 3:14-15). The Son is depicted as the image of the invisible God, the exact representation of his being and nature, and the Messiah-Redeemer (see Phil 2:5-6; Col 1:14-16; Heb 1:1-3). The Spirit is God in action, God reaching people—influencing them, regenerating them, infilling them, and guiding them (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; Gal 4:6; Eph 2:18). All three are a tri-unity, inhabiting one another and working together to accomplish the divine design in the universe (see Jn 16:13-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of (Father); Son of God; Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRINITY*<\/h3>\n<p>Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all the universe (see Jn 5:26; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 3:14-15). The Son is depicted as the image of the invisible God, the exact representation of his being and nature, and the Messiah-Redeemer (see Phil 2:5-6; Col 1:14-16; Heb 1:1-3). The Spirit is God in action, God reaching people—influencing them, regenerating them, infilling them, and guiding them (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; Gal 4:6; Eph 2:18). All three are a tri-unity, inhabiting one another and working together to accomplish the divine design in the universe (see Jn 16:13-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of (Father); Son of God; Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRINITY* Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all...","summary_en":"TRINITY* Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56667,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","summary_en":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84293,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","summary_en":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111919,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","summary_en":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139545,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:26<\/strong> <em>But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth:<\/em> Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","summary_en":"15:26 But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth: Like a legal advocate, the Holy Spirit counsels and protects Jesus’ followers.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65966,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66151,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67004,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93592,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93777,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94630,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121218,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121403,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122256,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148844,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149882,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":56668,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:27","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:27","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","summary_en":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84294,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:27","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:27","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","summary_en":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:27","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:27","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","summary_en":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139546,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 15:27","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 15:27","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>15:27<\/strong> Disciples are not alone when they <em>testify about<\/em> Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","summary_en":"15:27 Disciples are not alone when they testify about Christ (Matt 28:20). The Spirit accompanies them, providing the words to say (Matt 10:19-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}