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{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":29708,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56669,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:1","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","summary_en":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84295,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:1","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","summary_en":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111921,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:1","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","summary_en":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139547,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:1","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -5\"><strong>16:1-2<\/strong> Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not <em>abandon<\/em> their <em>faith<\/em> (literally <em>be caused to stumble<\/em>). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","summary_en":"16:1-2 Jesus had outlined the coming conflicts (15:18-25) so that the disciples would not abandon their faith (literally be caused to stumble). The greatest obstacle his disciples would face was to stumble and renounce their faith before their opponents (see Matt 23:34; Luke 6:22), especially during the dark days ahead (see John 12:35; 1 Jn 2:9-11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66344,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93970,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121596,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149222,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":4755,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8381,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cursed Curse","title_en":"Cursed Curse","content_ro":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","summary_en":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36534,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Synagogue","title_en":"Synagogue","content_ro":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","summary_en":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66309,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93935,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121561,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149187,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":60243,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","title_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","summary_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66126,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87869,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","title_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","summary_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93752,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115495,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","title_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","summary_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121378,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143121,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","title_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him.<\/p>\n<p>Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Red Sea crossing, they learned of God’s unique power. In the wilderness, they learned about God’s providential care. But they still did not know God’s character. The covenant at Sinai was designed to teach the Israelites about God’s nature and character as they lived out his <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> his instructions.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant used a familiar political form, the <em>suzerain-vassal treaty,<\/em> in which a great king (the <em>suzerain<\/em>) made a treaty with a nation he had subjected as a <em>vassal<\/em> people. In such a treaty, the conquered people would declare their absolute loyalty to the king and obedience to his demands. The king, for his part, would promise to care for the conquered people and protect them from any enemies who might attack them. In the covenant at Sinai, God called the people to absolute loyalty to himself as the only God and to a life that reflected his will and nature as their sovereign Creator.<\/p>\n<p>God wanted a very simple and straightforward response of obedience from the Israelites. But ever since the Fall (Gen 3), there has been something fundamentally wrong with the human spirit. Simple obedience was thus impossible for the Israelites, whose hearts were unchanged. The covenant was a good thing, but it was weak in that it was incapable of making the Israelites able to follow it (Rom 7:12; 8:3). Unless God graciously bestows his Spirit upon us, we will never be able to do the things we must do; we will never share the character of the Creator. Now, through the cross of Christ, God has made it possible for us to be empowered by the Spirit and thus to fulfill his covenant purpose by sharing his holy character.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 9:1; 19:3-6; Lev 11:44-45; Jer 31:33-34; 32:40; John 16:5-11; Rom 8:5-14; 10:8-17; Gal 5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","summary_en":"The Purpose of the Sinai Covenant Nearly everything the Israelites had learned about ultimate reality from the Egyptians was wrong. There are not many gods; there is only one God. The Creator is perfectly good, and evil is the result of rebellion against him. God’s blessings cannot be obtained through magic and manipulation; instead, they are free to those who lovingly submit to him. Upon leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not yet know God in the way that he intended. In the plagues and the Re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149004,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":2873,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ascension of Christ","title_en":"Ascension of Christ","content_ro":"<h3>ASCENSION OF CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Transference of the resurrected body of Jesus from this world to heaven. Among the NT writers, only Luke described Jesus’ ascension. Acts 1:9-11 pictures a scene in which Jesus was “taken up” and disappeared into a cloud. Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:12 locate that final event near Bethany, east of Jerusalem on the Mt of Olives.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew concluded his history before Pentecost, but John suggested the Ascension in Jesus’ own comments: Jesus has departed, but he will return (Jn 21:22); he cannot be touched, for he must ascend (20:17); many will believe without having seen him (20:29). Thus, the Gospels assume that (1) after the resurrection Jesus appeared to his disciples; (2) at some point in time those appearances ceased; and (3) although physically absent, Jesus is still spiritually present in his church. Other NT writings agree. The apostle Paul wrote that God raised Christ from the dead “and seated him in the place of honor at God’s right hand in the heavenly realms” (Eph 1:20) or, as the writer of Hebrews put it, “in the place of honor at the right hand of the majestic God of heaven” (Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Ascension, however, is more than merely a past event. It has further significance in the NT that can be summarized under two headings: (1) its meaning for Christ and (2) its meaning for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p>For Christ, the Ascension is the necessary entrance into his heavenly “glorification” in which he sits on the right hand of the Father until his enemies become his footstool (Ps 110:1—the OT text most quoted in the NT). The Ascension is proof of his glorification and his superiority over such OT heroes as David (Acts 2:33-36). By his ascension he rises over all and fills all (Eph 4:10), receiving “the name that is over every name” (Phil 2:9-11). For the author of the book of Hebrews the Ascension is also proof of Christ’s superiority to angels; he sits enthroned while they are constantly being sent out to serve (Heb 1:13-14). Angels, authorities, and powers are all subject to the ascended Christ (1 Tm 3:16; 1 Pt 3:22).<\/p>\n<p>For the Christian, the ascension of Christ is meaningful in four ways. First, without it there would be no gift of the Holy Spirit, who could not come until Jesus had ascended and sent him (Jn 16:7). Without the Ascension, the church would have Jesus locally in one place, not spiritually present “wherever two or three are gathered” (Mt 18:20; cf. 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Second, since a truly human Jesus has ascended to heaven, human beings can also ascend there. Jesus went “to prepare a place” for his followers (Jn 14:2). The hope of those who are “in Christ” is that they will eventually ascend to be with him (2 Cor 5:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the Ascension proves that the sacrifice of Christ is finished and accepted by God. Jesus has passed through the heavens (Heb 4:14) and entered the presence of God (Heb 6:20), which is described as the inner sanctuary of the heavenly temple, the real temple of which the one on earth was a copy (Heb 9:24). Having brought a single, once-for-all sacrifice to God (Heb 9:12), Christ sat down (Heb 1:3; 10:12; 12:2), showing that no repetition of his sacrifice is necessary.<\/p>\n<p>Fourth, the Ascension means that there is a human being in heaven who sympathizes with humanity and can therefore intercede on humanity’s behalf (1 Jn 2:1). Jesus has experienced everything humans experience—birth, growth, temptation, suffering, and death—and therefore he can serve effectively as an intermediary before God in heaven (Heb 2:17; 5:7-10). Christ’s ascension assures the church that God understands the human situation and that Christians can therefore approach him boldly in their prayers (Heb 4:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>Thus Christ’s ascension is an indispensable aspect of NT teaching. It is the basis for recognition of Christ’s exalted status and for the Christian’s confidence and hope.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASCENSION OF CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Transference of the resurrected body of Jesus from this world to heaven. Among the NT writers, only Luke described Jesus’ ascension. Acts 1:9-11 pictures a scene in which Jesus was “taken up” and disappeared into a cloud. Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:12 locate that final event near Bethany, east of Jerusalem on the Mt of Olives.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew concluded his history before Pentecost, but John suggested the Ascension in Jesus’ own comments: Jesus has departed, but he will return (Jn 21:22); he cannot be touched, for he must ascend (20:17); many will believe without having seen him (20:29). Thus, the Gospels assume that (1) after the resurrection Jesus appeared to his disciples; (2) at some point in time those appearances ceased; and (3) although physically absent, Jesus is still spiritually present in his church. Other NT writings agree. The apostle Paul wrote that God raised Christ from the dead “and seated him in the place of honor at God’s right hand in the heavenly realms” (Eph 1:20) or, as the writer of Hebrews put it, “in the place of honor at the right hand of the majestic God of heaven” (Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Ascension, however, is more than merely a past event. It has further significance in the NT that can be summarized under two headings: (1) its meaning for Christ and (2) its meaning for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p>For Christ, the Ascension is the necessary entrance into his heavenly “glorification” in which he sits on the right hand of the Father until his enemies become his footstool (Ps 110:1—the OT text most quoted in the NT). The Ascension is proof of his glorification and his superiority over such OT heroes as David (Acts 2:33-36). By his ascension he rises over all and fills all (Eph 4:10), receiving “the name that is over every name” (Phil 2:9-11). For the author of the book of Hebrews the Ascension is also proof of Christ’s superiority to angels; he sits enthroned while they are constantly being sent out to serve (Heb 1:13-14). Angels, authorities, and powers are all subject to the ascended Christ (1 Tm 3:16; 1 Pt 3:22).<\/p>\n<p>For the Christian, the ascension of Christ is meaningful in four ways. First, without it there would be no gift of the Holy Spirit, who could not come until Jesus had ascended and sent him (Jn 16:7). Without the Ascension, the church would have Jesus locally in one place, not spiritually present “wherever two or three are gathered” (Mt 18:20; cf. 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Second, since a truly human Jesus has ascended to heaven, human beings can also ascend there. Jesus went “to prepare a place” for his followers (Jn 14:2). The hope of those who are “in Christ” is that they will eventually ascend to be with him (2 Cor 5:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the Ascension proves that the sacrifice of Christ is finished and accepted by God. Jesus has passed through the heavens (Heb 4:14) and entered the presence of God (Heb 6:20), which is described as the inner sanctuary of the heavenly temple, the real temple of which the one on earth was a copy (Heb 9:24). Having brought a single, once-for-all sacrifice to God (Heb 9:12), Christ sat down (Heb 1:3; 10:12; 12:2), showing that no repetition of his sacrifice is necessary.<\/p>\n<p>Fourth, the Ascension means that there is a human being in heaven who sympathizes with humanity and can therefore intercede on humanity’s behalf (1 Jn 2:1). Jesus has experienced everything humans experience—birth, growth, temptation, suffering, and death—and therefore he can serve effectively as an intermediary before God in heaven (Heb 2:17; 5:7-10). Christ’s ascension assures the church that God understands the human situation and that Christians can therefore approach him boldly in their prayers (Heb 4:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>Thus Christ’s ascension is an indispensable aspect of NT teaching. It is the basis for recognition of Christ’s exalted status and for the Christian’s confidence and hope.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASCENSION OF CHRIST Transference of the resurrected body of Jesus from this world to heaven. Among the NT writers, only Luke described Jesus’ ascension. Acts 1:9-11 pictures a scene in which Jesus was “taken up” and disappeared into a cloud. Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:12 locate that final event near Bethany, east of Jerusalem on the Mt of Olives. Matthew concluded his history before Pentecost, but John suggested the Ascension in Jesus’ own comments: Jesus has departed, but he will return (Jn 21...","summary_en":"ASCENSION OF CHRIST Transference of the resurrected body of Jesus from this world to heaven. Among the NT writers, only Luke described Jesus’ ascension. Acts 1:9-11 pictures a scene in which Jesus was “taken up” and disappeared into a cloud. Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:12 locate that final event near Bethany, east of Jerusalem on the Mt of Olives. Matthew concluded his history before Pentecost, but John suggested the Ascension in Jesus’ own comments: Jesus has departed, but he will return (Jn 21...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7230,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Comforter*","title_en":"Comforter*","content_ro":"<h3>COMFORTER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parakletos<\/span> in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. <em>See<\/em> Paraclete.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMFORTER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">parakletos<\/span> in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. <em>See<\/em> Paraclete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMFORTER* KJV translation of the Greek word parakletos in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. See Paraclete.","summary_en":"COMFORTER* KJV translation of the Greek word parakletos in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and 16:7. See Paraclete.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7795,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Counselor Counsel","title_en":"Counselor Counsel","content_ro":"<h3>COUNSEL, COUNSELOR<\/h3>\n<p>Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The Bible mentions official counselors in Egypt (Is 19:11) and Babylon (Dn 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>A wise person seeks counsel when making plans: “Plans go wrong for lack of advice; many counselors bring success” (Prv 15:22, <span>nlt<\/span>). One’s counselors may be one’s parents (1:8), older people (Ez 7:26), prophets (2 Chr 25:16), wise men (Jer 18:18), or friends (Prv 27:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). Some counselors are evil, giving deceitful advice (Prv 12:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, God also counsels. He frustrates the counsel of the nations who oppose him (Ps 33:10), but his own counsel endures for many generations (v 11). No one may counsel the Lord (Is 40:13). His Messiah is called “Wonderful Counselor” (9:6).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, the Spirit counsels or comforts believers (Jn 14:16-17). Christ sends the Holy Spirit to his people (16:7), and the Spirit, also called the Spirit of truth, bears witness to Christ (15:26). The ascended Jesus Christ is seen as a counselor in God’s heavenly court (1 Jn 2:1, “advocate”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COUNSEL, COUNSELOR<\/h3>\n<p>Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The Bible mentions official counselors in Egypt (Is 19:11) and Babylon (Dn 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>A wise person seeks counsel when making plans: “Plans go wrong for lack of advice; many counselors bring success” (Prv 15:22, <span>nlt<\/span>). One’s counselors may be one’s parents (1:8), older people (Ez 7:26), prophets (2 Chr 25:16), wise men (Jer 18:18), or friends (Prv 27:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). Some counselors are evil, giving deceitful advice (Prv 12:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, God also counsels. He frustrates the counsel of the nations who oppose him (Ps 33:10), but his own counsel endures for many generations (v 11). No one may counsel the Lord (Is 40:13). His Messiah is called “Wonderful Counselor” (9:6).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, the Spirit counsels or comforts believers (Jn 14:16-17). Christ sends the Holy Spirit to his people (16:7), and the Spirit, also called the Spirit of truth, bears witness to Christ (15:26). The ascended Jesus Christ is seen as a counselor in God’s heavenly court (1 Jn 2:1, “advocate”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COUNSEL, COUNSELOR Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The...","summary_en":"COUNSEL, COUNSELOR Advice; adviser, especially on legal matters (such as a lawyer). In Bible times a counselor in a king’s court was like a U.S. cabinet member today. A counselor might at times have been in line to succeed the king. Ahithophel, counselor to David and Absalom, gave advice as sound as the “oracle of God” (2 Sm 16:23). The elders of Israel counseled King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 12:6), as did the friends with whom Rehoboam had grown up (vv 7-8), although his friends gave poor advice. The...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Christ*, Exaltation","title_en":"of Christ*, Exaltation","content_ro":"<h3>EXALTATION OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The glory and dominion which Jesus attained subsequent to the completion of his earthly work of suffering and death. It is at one and the same time the consummation of his redemptive sacrifice and the reward of his full obedience to the will of the Father. The exaltation thus includes the biblical doctrines of Jesus’ resurrection, ascension, and heavenly enthronement.<\/p>\n<p>During his earthly ministry, Jesus predicted not only that he would suffer, die, and be buried (Mt 20:28; Jn 3:14; 6:51; 10:11; etc.) but also that he would thereafter be exalted by the power of the Father to heavenly dominion and glory (Lk 24:26; Jn 17:5). This humiliation-exaltation pattern was plainly indicated by Jesus on the occasion of his encounter with a delegation of proselytes who sought to meet with the Lord (Jn 12:20-36). Jesus far exceeded the expectations of these Greeks by declaring that fellowship with his Father would be extended to the Gentiles in consequence of his imminent passion and resurrection. By affirming, “The hour has come for the Son of man to be glorified” (Jn 12:23, <span>rsv<\/span>), Jesus indicated that he would be endowed with honor and splendor at his exaltation to the presence of the Father in heaven. Jesus’ teaching in respect to his exaltation to heaven provided the foundation for the church’s more explicit teaching on the subject.<\/p>\n<p>The resurrection, the initial event in the exaltation of Jesus, is one of the central affirmations of NT teaching (Acts 2:24, 32; 3:15; 4:10; Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 15:4). From apostolic times Christians have consistently affirmed that at a particular moment in time and in a given place its founder literally passed from a state of death to a state of endless life. The absolute uniqueness of Christ’s exaltation via bodily resurrection from the dead sets Christianity in a class by itself among the religions of the world. A reading of the NT plainly indicates that Jesus openly predicted that death was unable to defeat him. To the skeptical Jews who demanded from Jesus a sign of the authority by which he purged the temple, the Lord answered: “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up” (Jn 2:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). After Peter’s crucial confession of Christ’s divine sonship at Caesarea Philippi, Jesus gave to his followers a more detailed account of the divine plan whereby he would be raised from the dead on the third day (Mt 16:21). To the disciples who assembled in Galilee shortly after his transfiguration, Jesus spoke plainly of his forthcoming exaltation: “The Son of man is to be delivered into the hands of men, and they will kill him, and he will be raised on the third day” (17:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the NT, the apostolic teaching about Christ’s death is almost always accompanied by an emphasis upon the certainty of his physical resurrection after three days.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, the NT writers were careful to spell out the profound theological significance of Christ’s exaltation in resurrection: (1) it demonstrates Christ’s certain power over death and the grave (Acts 2:24; 1 Cor 15:54-56); (2) it confirms the validity of Christ’s teachings, particularly his claims to divine Sonship (Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4); (3) it represents God’s ultimate vindication of his obedient, suffering servant (Phil 2:8-9); (4) it is the means of the justification (Rom 4:25) and regeneration (1 Pt 1:3) of the believer; and (5) it is the guarantee of the future resurrection of the Christian (Rom 6:5; 1 Cor 15:22-24). The effective cause of Christ’s resurrection is declared to be, on one hand, God (Ps 16:10; Acts 2:32; Eph 1:19-20) and, on the other hand, our Lord himself (Jn 2:19; 10:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension represents the second phase of the exaltation of Christ. According to the two NT historical accounts (Lk 24:50-51; Acts 1:9-11), 40 days after his death Jesus left his disciples for the last time and ascended into heaven. Jesus, who several times in John’s Gospel specifically refers to his ascension (Jn 3:13; 6:62; 14:12; 20:17), regarded the place to which he would depart as an actual locality in the heavenly realm (14:2). In his reflection upon this second stage of the exaltation intimated by Psalm 68:18, the apostle Paul associates the ascension with Christ’s triumph over his foes and the bestowal of spiritual gifts to the church (Eph 4:8). The victor triumphantly returned to his Father’s throne in order to bless his people. In what may be part of an early Christian hymn, Paul explicates what he regards as the supreme “mystery” of the Christian faith, namely, that Christ Jesus who “was manifested in the flesh” was at the close of his life “taken up into glory” (1 Tm 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alone among the writings of the NT, the Epistle to the Hebrews associates Christ’s ascension with his high priestly ministry in the heavenly sanctuary. He who steadfastly withstood every earthly trial, having “passed through the heavens,” is fully able to empathize with his people and impart grace to the tempted and distraught (Heb 4:14ff.). Employing the symbolism of the ancient Hebrew sanctuary, the writer conceptualizes the Ascension as the event whereby Christ enters into the inner shrine behind the curtain (6:19), bringing with him his own blood (9:12), to the end that he might appear in the presence of God on our behalf (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The NT thus attributes considerable theological significance to this phase of Christ’s exaltation. By virtue of his exaltation to the Father, Christ (1) demonstrated his defeat of every earthly enemy (Eph 4:8); (2) sent the promised Holy Spirit (Jn 16:7; Acts 2:33), which awaited his glorification (Jn 7:39); and (3) formally undertook his heavenly priestly ministry (Heb 6:20).<\/p>\n<p>The third stage of Christ’s exaltation is his heavenly enthronement at the right hand of the Father. Following his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension to the heavenly realm, Christ is represented in Scripture as having taken his seat at the Father’s right hand. The biblical phrase “right hand of God” (Acts 7:55-56), which has been preserved in many later Christian creeds and confessions, is an anthropomorphism that figuratively describes Christ’s universal dominion, authority, and power in the presence of the Father. This aspect of Christ’s exaltation represents the fulfillment of his prayer recorded in John 17:5: “Now, Father, glorify me in your own presence with the glory I had with you before the world was made.”<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the description of God seated on the throne of the universe is a sign of his sovereignty (1 Kgs 22:19; Ps 99:1), majesty (Is 6:1-4) and holiness (Ps 47:8). That one should be invited to take a seat on the right hand of the sovereign in Eastern cultures was a token of extraordinary honor and authority (1 Kgs 2:19). The fact that the exalted Christ would be accorded this particular privilege was anticipated in the Scriptures of the OT (see Ps 8:5, quoted in Heb 2:8; and see Ps 110:1).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Hebrews, which shows unusual interest in the doctrine of Christ’s exaltation, represents Christ’s heavenly enthronement both as the sequel to his completed earthly sacrifice and as the commencement of his High Priestly ministration in the sanctuary on high. Affirming the superiority of Christ as High Priest of the new covenant, Hebrews 8:1-2 portrays Christ as seated at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven, a minister in the heavenlies. Christ’s enthronement affirms not only the finality of his earthly work of self-sacrifice but also his newly acquired status as mediator of the new and better covenant. Hebrews 10:11-18 pointedly contrasts the ineffectual sacrifices of the legal priests who <em>stand<\/em> in the performance of their ritual sacrifices with the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now <em>seated<\/em> at the right hand of God as intercessor for the saints.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXALTATION OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\n<p>The glory and dominion which Jesus attained subsequent to the completion of his earthly work of suffering and death. It is at one and the same time the consummation of his redemptive sacrifice and the reward of his full obedience to the will of the Father. The exaltation thus includes the biblical doctrines of Jesus’ resurrection, ascension, and heavenly enthronement.<\/p>\n<p>During his earthly ministry, Jesus predicted not only that he would suffer, die, and be buried (Mt 20:28; Jn 3:14; 6:51; 10:11; etc.) but also that he would thereafter be exalted by the power of the Father to heavenly dominion and glory (Lk 24:26; Jn 17:5). This humiliation-exaltation pattern was plainly indicated by Jesus on the occasion of his encounter with a delegation of proselytes who sought to meet with the Lord (Jn 12:20-36). Jesus far exceeded the expectations of these Greeks by declaring that fellowship with his Father would be extended to the Gentiles in consequence of his imminent passion and resurrection. By affirming, “The hour has come for the Son of man to be glorified” (Jn 12:23, <span>rsv<\/span>), Jesus indicated that he would be endowed with honor and splendor at his exaltation to the presence of the Father in heaven. Jesus’ teaching in respect to his exaltation to heaven provided the foundation for the church’s more explicit teaching on the subject.<\/p>\n<p>The resurrection, the initial event in the exaltation of Jesus, is one of the central affirmations of NT teaching (Acts 2:24, 32; 3:15; 4:10; Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 15:4). From apostolic times Christians have consistently affirmed that at a particular moment in time and in a given place its founder literally passed from a state of death to a state of endless life. The absolute uniqueness of Christ’s exaltation via bodily resurrection from the dead sets Christianity in a class by itself among the religions of the world. A reading of the NT plainly indicates that Jesus openly predicted that death was unable to defeat him. To the skeptical Jews who demanded from Jesus a sign of the authority by which he purged the temple, the Lord answered: “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up” (Jn 2:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). After Peter’s crucial confession of Christ’s divine sonship at Caesarea Philippi, Jesus gave to his followers a more detailed account of the divine plan whereby he would be raised from the dead on the third day (Mt 16:21). To the disciples who assembled in Galilee shortly after his transfiguration, Jesus spoke plainly of his forthcoming exaltation: “The Son of man is to be delivered into the hands of men, and they will kill him, and he will be raised on the third day” (17:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the NT, the apostolic teaching about Christ’s death is almost always accompanied by an emphasis upon the certainty of his physical resurrection after three days.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, the NT writers were careful to spell out the profound theological significance of Christ’s exaltation in resurrection: (1) it demonstrates Christ’s certain power over death and the grave (Acts 2:24; 1 Cor 15:54-56); (2) it confirms the validity of Christ’s teachings, particularly his claims to divine Sonship (Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4); (3) it represents God’s ultimate vindication of his obedient, suffering servant (Phil 2:8-9); (4) it is the means of the justification (Rom 4:25) and regeneration (1 Pt 1:3) of the believer; and (5) it is the guarantee of the future resurrection of the Christian (Rom 6:5; 1 Cor 15:22-24). The effective cause of Christ’s resurrection is declared to be, on one hand, God (Ps 16:10; Acts 2:32; Eph 1:19-20) and, on the other hand, our Lord himself (Jn 2:19; 10:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension represents the second phase of the exaltation of Christ. According to the two NT historical accounts (Lk 24:50-51; Acts 1:9-11), 40 days after his death Jesus left his disciples for the last time and ascended into heaven. Jesus, who several times in John’s Gospel specifically refers to his ascension (Jn 3:13; 6:62; 14:12; 20:17), regarded the place to which he would depart as an actual locality in the heavenly realm (14:2). In his reflection upon this second stage of the exaltation intimated by Psalm 68:18, the apostle Paul associates the ascension with Christ’s triumph over his foes and the bestowal of spiritual gifts to the church (Eph 4:8). The victor triumphantly returned to his Father’s throne in order to bless his people. In what may be part of an early Christian hymn, Paul explicates what he regards as the supreme “mystery” of the Christian faith, namely, that Christ Jesus who “was manifested in the flesh” was at the close of his life “taken up into glory” (1 Tm 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alone among the writings of the NT, the Epistle to the Hebrews associates Christ’s ascension with his high priestly ministry in the heavenly sanctuary. He who steadfastly withstood every earthly trial, having “passed through the heavens,” is fully able to empathize with his people and impart grace to the tempted and distraught (Heb 4:14ff.). Employing the symbolism of the ancient Hebrew sanctuary, the writer conceptualizes the Ascension as the event whereby Christ enters into the inner shrine behind the curtain (6:19), bringing with him his own blood (9:12), to the end that he might appear in the presence of God on our behalf (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The NT thus attributes considerable theological significance to this phase of Christ’s exaltation. By virtue of his exaltation to the Father, Christ (1) demonstrated his defeat of every earthly enemy (Eph 4:8); (2) sent the promised Holy Spirit (Jn 16:7; Acts 2:33), which awaited his glorification (Jn 7:39); and (3) formally undertook his heavenly priestly ministry (Heb 6:20).<\/p>\n<p>The third stage of Christ’s exaltation is his heavenly enthronement at the right hand of the Father. Following his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension to the heavenly realm, Christ is represented in Scripture as having taken his seat at the Father’s right hand. The biblical phrase “right hand of God” (Acts 7:55-56), which has been preserved in many later Christian creeds and confessions, is an anthropomorphism that figuratively describes Christ’s universal dominion, authority, and power in the presence of the Father. This aspect of Christ’s exaltation represents the fulfillment of his prayer recorded in John 17:5: “Now, Father, glorify me in your own presence with the glory I had with you before the world was made.”<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the description of God seated on the throne of the universe is a sign of his sovereignty (1 Kgs 22:19; Ps 99:1), majesty (Is 6:1-4) and holiness (Ps 47:8). That one should be invited to take a seat on the right hand of the sovereign in Eastern cultures was a token of extraordinary honor and authority (1 Kgs 2:19). The fact that the exalted Christ would be accorded this particular privilege was anticipated in the Scriptures of the OT (see Ps 8:5, quoted in Heb 2:8; and see Ps 110:1).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Hebrews, which shows unusual interest in the doctrine of Christ’s exaltation, represents Christ’s heavenly enthronement both as the sequel to his completed earthly sacrifice and as the commencement of his High Priestly ministration in the sanctuary on high. Affirming the superiority of Christ as High Priest of the new covenant, Hebrews 8:1-2 portrays Christ as seated at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven, a minister in the heavenlies. Christ’s enthronement affirms not only the finality of his earthly work of self-sacrifice but also his newly acquired status as mediator of the new and better covenant. Hebrews 10:11-18 pointedly contrasts the ineffectual sacrifices of the legal priests who <em>stand<\/em> in the performance of their ritual sacrifices with the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now <em>seated<\/em> at the right hand of God as intercessor for the saints.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXALTATION OF CHRIST* The glory and dominion which Jesus attained subsequent to the completion of his earthly work of suffering and death. It is at one and the same time the consummation of his redemptive sacrifice and the reward of his full obedience to the will of the Father. The exaltation thus includes the biblical doctrines of Jesus’ resurrection, ascension, and heavenly enthronement. During his earthly ministry, Jesus predicted not only that he would suffer, die, and be buried (Mt 20:28...","summary_en":"EXALTATION OF CHRIST* The glory and dominion which Jesus attained subsequent to the completion of his earthly work of suffering and death. It is at one and the same time the consummation of his redemptive sacrifice and the reward of his full obedience to the will of the Father. The exaltation thus includes the biblical doctrines of Jesus’ resurrection, ascension, and heavenly enthronement. During his earthly ministry, Jesus predicted not only that he would suffer, die, and be buried (Mt 20:28...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14053,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Glory","title_en":"Glory","content_ro":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\n<p>The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGloryofGod\">The Glory of God<\/p>\n<p>The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\n<p>God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\n<p>The glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\n<p>References to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>The first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\n<p>The picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\n<p>Later in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGloryofGodinJesusChrist\">The Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>We are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and <em>dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his <em>glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Because Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\n<p>At the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GloryandthePeopleofGod\">Glory and the People of God<\/p>\n<p>The people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was <em>their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>God has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\n<p>The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGloryofGod\">The Glory of God<\/p>\n<p>The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\n<p>God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\n<p>The glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\n<p>References to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>The first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\n<p>The picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\n<p>Later in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGloryofGodinJesusChrist\">The Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>We are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and <em>dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his <em>glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Because Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\n<p>At the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GloryandthePeopleofGod\">Glory and the People of God<\/p>\n<p>The people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was <em>their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>God has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","summary_en":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36205,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","title_en":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56670,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:7","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","summary_en":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84296,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:7","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","summary_en":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111922,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:7","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","summary_en":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139548,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:7","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>the Advocate:<\/em> The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","summary_en":"16:7 the Advocate: The Spirit was a gift awaiting Jesus’ departure and glorification (7:37-39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:12-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65967,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66068,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66152,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67033,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93593,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93694,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93778,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94659,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121219,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121320,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121404,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122285,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148845,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148946,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149030,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149911,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":19672,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Teachings of Jesus Christ","title_en":"Teachings of Jesus Christ","content_ro":"<h3>JESUS CHRIST, Teachings of<\/h3>\n<p>Because of the wide variety of forms in which the teachings of Jesus have been preserved, it is difficult to bring out the essence of that teaching in a systematic way. Jesus did not present us with a theological system. His words were essentially practical in intent. Yet from all the variety of sayings it is possible to extract a clear idea of what Jesus thought about a number of important issues. What was his teaching about God? What did he think about himself? What did he mean when he spoke about the kingdom? What light does his teaching throw on the meaning of his death? What did he say about the Holy Spirit? How did he describe human beings and their needs? Did he anticipate the Christian church? Did he teach anything about the end of the world? What were the main features of his moral teaching? The following sections will seek to answer these important questions.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about God<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Himself<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Kingdom of God<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about His Own Death<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Holy Spirit<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Humanity<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Church<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Future<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Moral Issues<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutGod\">Teachings about God<\/p>\n<p>Anyone who comes to the teachings of Jesus after reading the OT will at once recognize that much of his teaching about God is the same. Since Jesus, as all orthodox Jews of his day, accepted the testimony of the OT as inspired, it is not surprising that his approach to God was similar. This is especially true of his assumption that God was Creator. He taught a special providential care over the created order and affirmed that God watched over such small creatures as the sparrow (Mt 10:29). There is no support in the teachings of Jesus for the view that God is uninterested in the world he made.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic titles Jesus used for God was Father. This was not new, for the idea occurs in the OT, where God is seen as Father of his people Israel. This kind of fatherhood was national rather than personal. In the intertestamental period the Jews came to regard God as so holy that he was removed from direct contact with human affairs. There had to be mediators between God and people. This exalted notion of God was not conducive to the idea of God as Father, and it is against this background that the uniqueness of the personal fatherhood of God in the teaching of Jesus must be seen. There is some evidence in Judaism that prayer to God as “Our Father” was known, but what distinguishes Jesus’ teachings from that of his contemporaries is that the fatherhood of God was central to what he taught.<\/p>\n<p>The father-son relationship is particularly vivid in John’s Gospel, where Jesus as Son is seen to be in close communion with God as Father. This comes out strongly in Jesus’ prayer in John 17 and in the frequent assertions that the Father had sent the Son and that the Son was doing the will of the Father. It is this strong relationship between God and Jesus in terms of fatherhood and sonship that led Jesus to teach men to approach God in the same way. The Lord’s Prayer at once recognizes this in its opening words. It is particularly important to note that “Our Father” precedes “hallowed be thy name,” for the more intimate idea prepares the way for the more remote. Jesus never taught men to approach God with terror.<\/p>\n<p>Although there is a connection between the way in which Jesus addressed God as Father and the way in which he taught his disciples to approach God, there is also a distinction. Jesus spoke of “my Father and your Father” when he appeared to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection (Jn 20:17), but he did not say “our Father.” His sonship was unique, for he claimed that he and the Father were one (Jn 10:30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus assured his followers that their heavenly Father knows about their needs (Mt 6:32; Lk 12:30), on the strength of which they are exhorted not to be anxious. This gives some insight into the way in which Jesus’ teachings about God has a bearing on practical issues.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHimself\">Teachings about Himself<\/p>\n<p>What Jesus said about himself is of great importance, for this undoubtedly formed the basis of what the early church came to teach about him.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used certain titles of himself or accepted them as descriptions of himself when they were used by others. The most widely used is Son of Man. This title was used by Jesus to refer to himself but was not used by anyone else. It was used, moreover, in several different kinds of sayings. Sometimes the sayings related directly to the public ministry of Jesus, like the saying that the Son of Man was Lord of the Sabbath (Mk 2:28), or that the Son of Man had authority to forgive sins (v 10). Sometimes the sayings had a direct bearing on the Passion, as when Jesus said that the Son of Man must suffer many things (Mk 8:31; note that Mt 16:21 has “he” instead of “Son of Man”). At other times the reference is to a future appearance, as when Jesus declared to the high priest that he would see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of Power and coming on the clouds of heaven (Mk 14:62). What did Jesus mean by the title, and why did he use it?<\/p>\n<p>The title “Son of Man” had been used before. The phrase occurs in Psalm 8:4, where it refers to man or humans. Again, the expression is used many times in Ezekiel as a mode of address to the prophet, but here also it means man. A rather different use occurs in Daniel 7:13, where one like a son of man comes with the clouds before the Ancient of Days. There is a strong similarity between this passage and the words of Jesus in Mark 14:62. But an important difference is that whereas Son of Man becomes a title in Mark, it is not so in Daniel. There is some evidence for the title in Jewish apocalyptic literature (e.g., in the Similitudes of Enoch), where it represents a preexistent being who will come to judge and overthrow the enemies of God. It seems evident from this that Jesus’ use of Son of Man as a title is unique.<\/p>\n<p>The Son of Man sayings are distributed throughout the four Gospels, and there are no appreciable differences in their uses. What is at first astonishing is that though the title is so widespread in the Gospels on the lips of Jesus, it never became a name by which Jesus was known by the early Christians. In fact, only in Acts 7:56 does the title appear, in this case used by Stephen. It is clear, therefore, that it had a special meaning for Jesus that it did not have for others. There is no doubt that he was referring to himself and not to someone else, as a careful study of all the Son of Man sayings shows. Those who think that Jesus was referring to someone else arrive at this conclusion only after first dispensing with some of the sayings. The most probable reason why he used the title Son of Man was because he wanted to avoid a term like Messiah, which carried with it too many political overtones. But what did Son of Man mean to Jesus? It is rich with the idea of humanness, possibly allusions to Daniel’s “son of man,” and perhaps a touch of the Suffering Servant idea from Isaiah 53. It is most likely that Jesus saw it in terms of his mission in a way that his hearers could not fully appreciate. It is also probable that the early church preferred Messiah because this title carried the meaning of a royal deliverer; also, after the death of Jesus, there would be no further fear of political misunderstanding.<\/p>\n<p>The term Messiah, or Christ, does not belong strictly to the teachings of Jesus, since he himself never used it. The most striking instance where he accepted the ascription of Messiah was in Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi. All the synoptic Gospels record the confession “You are the Christ,” while Matthew adds the significant comment by Jesus that flesh and blood had not revealed it but “my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17). He certainly accepted the confession and regarded it as revelation. One other case in the Synoptics where he does not specifically refute messiahship is his answer to the high priest’s question “Are you the Messiah?” (Mk 14:61). In John’s Gospel, Andrew tells Peter that he had found the Messiah (Jn 1:41); the woman at Samaria talks to Jesus, and he reveals that he is the Messiah (4:25-26). There was a widespread expectation among the Jews that a deliverer would come to overthrow their political enemies, the Romans. There were various ideas about his origin (a military leader or a heavenly warrior) and his methods (the Zealots believed that deliverance could come only through armed revolution). The reticence of Jesus concerning messiahship is therefore readily understandable.<\/p>\n<p>Another title of utmost importance is Son of God, although it occurs mainly in John’s Gospel. That both Mark and John regarded Jesus in this light is clear from explicit statements in their Gospels (cf. Mk 1:1; Jn 20:30-31). There are certainly passages where Messiah is linked with Son of God and where Jesus rejects neither title (cf. Mt 16:16). But in the teachings of Jesus one passage makes abundantly clear the special relationship that Jesus had with God as Son—namely, Matthew 11:27 (also Lk 10:22, a parallel passage), where Jesus implies that he is the Son of the Father.<\/p>\n<p>Many similar passages in John’s Gospel are, however, more explicit. The Son is unquestionably preexistent, because he knows he came from the Father and returns to the Father. It is not possible from the many references to sonship in John’s Gospel to come to any other conclusion than that Jesus regarded himself as divine. It is particularly important to note that it is also in this Gospel that Jesus is portrayed most clearly in his human nature with its attendant weaknesses. Nowhere in the teachings of Jesus did he explain how God could become man, but he assumed this as a fact. He taught with the authority of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheKingdomofGod\">Teachings about the Kingdom of God<\/p>\n<p>No one can read the synoptic Gospels without being impressed with the frequency with which the expression “kingdom of God” (or of heaven) occurs. It was clearly an important theme in the whole teaching of Jesus. It is less evident in John’s Gospel but is nevertheless still present. Many of the parables of Jesus are specifically called parables of the kingdom. Jesus’ concept of the kingdom provided a foundational idea to the Christian gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The main idea is the rule of God over people rather than a realm that belongs to God. In other words, the emphasis is on the active reigning of the King. This is important because it means that the kingdom is inextricably affected by relationships between the members and the King. It also means the kingdom will not be expressed in institutional terms.<\/p>\n<p>There is one problem with the kingdom teachings that must be faced: its timing. Some sayings imply that it is already present, while others suggest that it will not come until the future. Some scholars disavow the idea that present and future can be held together; therefore, they reject one and concentrate on the other. Those who maintain a present understanding of the kingdom developed the idea of a social gospel, since Christianity was defined as the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth. According to this view, there is no place for a future arrival of the kingdom. On the other hand, some have denied altogether the present aspect and concentrate on the future. In this case, it is difficult to see in what sense the kingdom teachings are relevant.<\/p>\n<p>Yet others have insisted that since both present and future aspects are found in the Gospel records, no explanation is satisfying that denies one at the expense of the other. One possible solution is to regard the present aspects as applying to this age but as not reaching their fulfillment until the future establishment of the kingdom. A similar solution, expressed differently, is to maintain that the reality is a future kingdom but that it has spilled over into the present. Jesus intentionally included both present and future aspects.<\/p>\n<p>That the kingdom was a theme of common interest is clear from Luke 17:20-21, where the Pharisees asked Jesus when it was coming. His answer, that it was among them, shows unmistakably a present idea. This is equally true of the statement that in the exorcism of evil spirits the kingdom had arrived (Mt 12:28; Lk 11:20). Moreover, Jesus mentioned that the kingdom has been forcefully advancing (Mt 11:12), by which he did not mean by revolutionary methods, although he clearly implied that something dynamic was already happening. This idea of dynamic power is one of the most characteristic features of the kingdom. Jesus spoke of binding the strong, armed man (Lk 11:21-22), which shows that in his ministry he expected to give a powerful demonstration against the forces of darkness.<\/p>\n<p>It is evident that the kingdom Jesus proclaimed was a kingdom in which God was supreme. It was inseparably linked with his redemptive mission, in which God was bringing spiritual deliverance to his people. Moreover, the kingdom teachings of Jesus cannot be regarded in isolation. It is part of the total message; no part of that message can be divorced from any other part without distorting the whole.<\/p>\n<p>The clearest teachings on the future aspect of the kingdom are to be found in some of the parables (Mt 13) and in the discourse on the Mt of Olives (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). In the latter, Jesus spoke of the future using imagery drawn from Jewish literature, like the references to clouds, to glory, and to angels in relation to the coming of the Son of Man (Mk 13:26-27). In Matthew’s account there is reference to a trumpet call, another familiar feature (Mt 24:31).<\/p>\n<p>Various features from the kingdom parables give the clearest idea of the nature of the kingdom. Membership in the kingdom is not considered to be universal, for in the parable of the sower not all the soils are productive. The same separation is seen in the parable of the tares and the parable of the dragnet. The tares are destroyed and only the wheat is harvested, while the bad fish are discarded. The members of the kingdom are those who hear and understand the word of the kingdom (Mt 13:23). It is clear, therefore, that a response is necessary if the benefits of the kingdom are to be enjoyed.<\/p>\n<p>There is an emphasis on growth in the parable of the mustard seed, where rapid development occurs from small beginnings. The parables of the treasure and the pearl are intended to underline the value of the kingdom. The universal character of the kingdom comes out sharply in the parable of the vineyard, where the kingdom is said to be taken away from the Jews and given to another “nation,” presumably an allusion to the Gentiles (Mt 21:43). This is in line with the great commission Jesus gave to his disciples to preach to all nations (28:19). A universal kingdom would certainly be entirely different from the messianic kingdom idea of Judaism, in which Israel was to be the central unit. It is not easy to appreciate how revolutionary the idea was of a worldwide kingdom with Gentiles and Jews on the same footing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHisOwnDeath\">Teachings about His Own Death<\/p>\n<p>The announcement of the kingdom must be linked with Jesus’ approach to his own death. Did Jesus see his death as an integral part of his mission? Some have maintained that he ended his life in disillusionment, but a brief survey of his teaching about his own destiny is sufficient to dispel such a theory. To the further question, “What meaning did Jesus attach to his forthcoming death?” he gave a series of passing indications that, when taken together, supply us with a basis on which to reconstruct some idea of the place of his death within the entire range of his mission.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to note that many times Jesus showed his awareness that details of his life were a fulfillment of Scripture (cf. Mt 26:24, 56; Mk 9:12; Lk 18:31; 24:25-27, 44-45). In all the instances cited, the suffering of Jesus is referred to as the subject of OT prophecy. This must mean that he had reflected on OT predictions and recognized that they could be fulfilled only through his own sufferings. In this case the Passion must be regarded as an indispensable part of Jesus’ consciousness of his own mission.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis on fulfillment of Scripture is also seen in John’s Gospel. His statement that the Son of Man must be lifted up even as Moses lifted up the serpent (Jn 3:14) illustrates this point. Most of the passages where fulfillment of Scripture is mentioned are the comments of the Evangelist, John. But there can be no doubt that the fulfillment motive played a vital part both in Jesus’ own understanding of his mission and in the early Christians’ understanding of his death. In this connection, some hold that John puts more stress on the Incarnation as a means of salvation in that he sees it as an illumination of the mind. But this is only part of the truth, for there is more on the meaning of the death of Jesus in John’s Gospel than in the others.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels emphasize the divine necessity of the death of Jesus. In addition to the fulfillment motive, the idea of necessity is strong in the first prediction by Jesus of his approaching death. In John’s Gospel Jesus speaks of his “hour” several times in the earlier stages of his ministry as “not yet,” but in the later stages as having arrived. There is a sense of definite movement toward a climax, the hour undoubtedly being the hour of the Passion (cf. Jn 17:1). There is not room for any disillusionment here. Jesus knew that only through the hour of death could the Father be glorified. The climax was according to an orderly plan.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus evidently regarded his death as in some ways a sacrifice. The clearest indication of this is in the words of institution at the Last Supper. The cup is connected with the blood of the new covenant, which is said to be for the “remission of sins” (Mt 26:26-28). No explanation is given of the way in which the coming death, signified by the broken bread and poured-out wine, would bring about forgiveness of sins. But the immediate realization by the early church that Christ died for our sins (cf. 1 Cor 15:3) shows that the importance of what Jesus said had been clearly grasped. The new covenant idea is parallel to the old covenant, which according to Exodus 24 was sealed with sacrificial blood; there can be little doubt that Jesus had this in mind when he spoke the words about the new covenant. It was also akin to the ideas expressed in Jeremiah 31, referring to a covenant written on the heart rather than graven in stone.<\/p>\n<p>Another aspect of the death of Christ seen especially in John’s Gospel is the sense of completion that went with it. In Jesus’ prayer in John 17, as he faces the cross, he declares that he has finished the work that the Father had given him to do (Jn 17:4). This is reinforced by the cry from the cross, “It is finished,” which only John records (19:30). This sense of accomplishment gives an air of triumph to what might otherwise have been considered a disaster.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheHolySpirit\">Teachings about the Holy Spirit<\/p>\n<p>At several of the major events in the life of Jesus, the Evangelists note the activity of the Spirit (e.g., the Virgin Birth, the Baptism, the Temptation). It is to be expected, therefore, that Jesus would have instructed his disciples about the Spirit. However, there is surprisingly little in the synoptic Gospels on this theme. Most of the teachings come from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus began his preaching ministry in Nazareth, according to Luke, he read the statement in Isaiah 61:1-2 about the Spirit of God and applied it to himself. He saw his ministry as being inaugurated by the Spirit. This becomes clear in the way in which he responded to the charge that he cast out demons by means of Beelzebub, prince of the demons. He identified the reality of the coming of the kingdom by the fact that he was casting out evil spirits by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). He was, moreover, sensitive to the seriousness of blaspheming the Spirit, which he implies his accusers were in danger of doing. Whatever he did in his ministry he saw as an activity of the Spirit, and this was especially so in the contest with evil spirits.<\/p>\n<p>While warning his disciples that they would meet with opposition, Jesus assured them of the Spirit’s support when they were forced to appear before kings or governors (Mt 10:19-20; Mk 13:11). Indeed, he told them that the Spirit would speak through them, thus emphasizing that he expected a continuation of the Spirit’s activity in the future. Luke records one instance in which Jesus comments on what fathers will do for their children and asks whether God will not give the Holy Spirit to those who ask (Lk 11:13). The assumption is that God regards the Holy Spirit as the best gift to give his children. On yet another occasion, Jesus recognized that David was inspired by the Holy Spirit when he wrote Psalm 110 (Mk 12:36), reflecting Jesus’ belief in the Spirit’s agency in the production of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of John provides a more detailed development of what Jesus taught about the Spirit. Teachings about the Spirit are usually linked to Jesus’ teachings about giving eternal life to those who believe in him and receive him. At the same time he spoke of the new birth and eternal life to Nicodemus, Jesus also spoke of the Spirit (Jn 3:3-8, 15-16). When he spoke of water of life to the Samaritan woman, he also spoke of the Spirit (4:14, 23-24). The same holds true for the discourses on the bread of life (6:48-63) and river of life (7:37-39). Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life, but no one could really partake of these until after the Lord was resurrected. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive a certain measure of life via the Lord’s words, because his words were themselves spirit and life (6:63), but it was not until the Spirit would become available that the believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life.<\/p>\n<p>After the Lord’s discourse in John 6 (a discourse that was very troubling and offensive to most of his disciples), Jesus said, “It is the Spirit who gives eternal life” (6:63). When the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “This He spoke of the Spirit, . . . for the Spirit was not yet given, because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39, <span>nasb<\/span>). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for men to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by men; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat of him or drink of him until the Spirit of the glorified Jesus was made available, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples were regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as Spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “We know he lives in us because the Holy Spirit lives in us” (1 Jn 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>The indwelling Spirit helped the disciples remember Jesus’ words and actions (Jn 14:26) so that they could teach and write about them with acumen. This means that Jesus did not intend that the preservation of his teachings should be left to chance. All too often theories attempting to explain the way in which the traditions about Jesus and his teachings were transmitted in the period before there were any written Gospels are suggested without any reference to the Holy Spirit. It is not acceptable to concentrate on so-called laws of oral tradition and pay no attention to the unique factor in this case—the Holy Spirit. It is part of the Spirit’s mission to preserve and transmit the teaching of Jesus. What Jesus says in this passage about the Spirit has far-reaching significance for the formation of the Gospels.<\/p>\n<p>Another important function is the activity of the Spirit in the world. Jesus made it clear that the Spirit would convict of sin, of righteousness, and of judgment (Jn 16:8). Without the activity of the Spirit, there would be no possibility of the disciples making any impact on the world. Nevertheless, Jesus warned that the world could not receive the Spirit because it did not know him (14:17). The mystery of the Spirit is that he dwells in every believer. This indwelling aspect is of great importance and was particularly developed in the writings of Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHumanity\">Teachings about Humanity<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught about God’s providential care over all human beings. A person’s hairs are all numbered (Mt 10:30), which is a vivid way of saying that God is concerned about the details of human life. But God is far more concerned with the eternal soul. Jesus made it clear that it would be unprofitable for anyone to gain the world and to lose his or her soul (Mt 16:26; Mk 8:36; Lk 9:25). The focus falls on what a person is and not what he or she has. Jesus even said that a maimed body was preferable to a forfeited life (Mk 9:43-47). One’s total fulfillment depends more on one’s spiritual condition than on one’s environment or physical well-being. He was not, of course, unconcerned about people’s physical state, as his many healings show, but his major concern was with people’s relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus never viewed humans as isolated individuals. Within God’s community people were expected to have responsibility toward one another. The Sermon on the Mount illustrated this social emphasis in the teaching of Jesus. Those who are merciful to others will obtain mercy (Mt 5:7). There is special commendation for peacemakers (v 9). The disciples of Jesus are expected to bring light to others (v 16). They are expected to give more than expected (v 40). Jesus is clearly saying that people have responsibility beyond themselves.<\/p>\n<p>The relation of people to God is one of dependence. Jesus taught men and women to pray to God for daily bread (Mt 6:11) as a reminder that they cannot be wholly self-sufficient. He allowed no place in his teaching for humans to boast in their own achievements.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had some specific things to say about home life. He accepted the sanctity of the marriage contract (Mt 5:31-32; cf. 19:3-9) and therefore showed a high regard for the honor and rights of the wife. It was more in his actions and attitudes rather than his specific teachings that Jesus showed his regard for the status of women. When he spoke of men, he often used the term in the sense of people, including both men and women. There is no suggestion that in matters of faith women were in the least inferior to men. Moreover, Luke points out how many women supported Jesus and his disciples in their travels.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had a high view of the human potential but also acknowledged their present condition. The stress on repentance (Mt 4:17) shows a sinfulness of which people need to repent. This sense of need is implicit in the instances where Jesus pronounces forgiveness (e.g., to the paralytic, Mt 9:1-8; and to the woman who anointed him, Lk 7:47-48). In the Lord’s Prayer, Jesus instructs his disciples to pray for forgiveness (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4). He takes for granted that they need it and desire to obtain it.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus gives no support to any self-righteousness in men or women. This is the burden of his criticism of the religious leaders in various sayings, but particularly in Matthew 23. He was critical of Jewish teachers because they placed so much importance on works of merit as contributing to salvation. His whole approach depended on humans casting themselves on the mercy of God. This is vividly illustrated in the parable about the Pharisee and the tax collector at prayer (Lk 18:10-14). It was the latter who threw himself on the mercy of God and who was commended by Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Undoubtedly, Jesus regarded sin as universal. He never suggested that there was anyone who was exempt from it. The major concept of sin in his teachings was alienation from God. This comes out clearly in John’s Gospel, with its strong antithesis between light and darkness, life and death (cf. Jn 5:24). Indeed, the “world” in John’s Gospel represents the system that takes no account of God. But sin is also seen as enslavement to Satan. The life and teachings of Jesus are seen against the background of spiritual conflict. Jesus can even say to his opponents, “You are of your father the devil” (Jn 8:44). He assumes throughout that there are hostile forces bringing man into subjection.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, sin against God is linked with sin before the father. In other words, it is regarded in terms of rebellion and revolt (Lk 15:21). This is a different assessment of the son’s offense than the one arrived at by the elder brother, who could see it only in terms of property. The view that humans are essentially in a state of rebellion against God is a basic tenet of Paul’s theological position, and it is important to note that it finds its root in the teachings of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>There is no question that Jesus had much to say about condemnation. Those who did not believe and were therefore outside the provision of salvation that Jesus had made are declared to be already condemned (Jn 3:18). At various times Jesus mentioned judgment to come, which shows that a person’s destiny is related to his or her present spiritual condition. Against this background of humanity’s spiritual need, the whole mission of Jesus must be seen. A person, if left to himself or herself, would be totally unable to achieve salvation, but Jesus came to offer eternal life to those who believe in him (Jn 3:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheChurch\">Teachings about the Church<\/p>\n<p>Some have supposed that Jesus did not predict that there would be a church. But on two occasions he used the word “church,” which means a people called out by God. On one of the occasions—at Caesarea Philippi—Jesus told Peter that he would build his church upon the rock (Mt 16:16-19). It seems most probable that “rock” was intended to link the foundation of the church to Peter’s particular confession about Jesus. It is certain that the later church was a community that affirmed that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of the living God. It is important to note that it is Christ himself who is the builder of the church. He assured his disciples that it would be impregnable (the gates of hades would not overcome it). Moreover, one of the functions of the church was to proclaim forgiveness of sins, and this is implied in what Jesus said to Peter. That the words were not intended to refer exclusively to him is clear from Matthew 18:18, where similar words were addressed to all the disciples. The church, according to Matthew 18:17, was to be a community that could settle disputes between believers.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to these specific references to the church, Jesus assumed that his followers would meet together in his name (Mt 18:19-20). In his final words in Matthew’s account, he commissioned them to teach what he had taught them and to baptize new disciples (Mt 28:19-20). He promised his presence would be with them. The command to baptize was reinforced by Jesus’ own example in submitting to John’s baptism. One other special rite that Jesus expected his disciples to observe was the Lord’s Supper. His instructions about this presuppose a later community that could observe it. Since the form of words used in the institution point to the meaning of the death of Christ, it is clear that Jesus intended the future community to be frequently reminded of the center of the faith. The Christian church was to be a group of people who knew that through Christ they had entered into a new relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Although there are no references to the church in John’s Gospel, there are certainly hints that support the community idea. Jesus introduced himself as the Shepherd and spoke of his followers as forming a flock (Jn 10:16). The sheep imagery occurs again in this Gospel when Peter is instructed three times by the risen Lord to feed the sheep (Jn 21:15-17). Another figure of speech that Jesus used to bring out the group idea is that of the many branches that draw their life from the vine, and therefore belong to each other because of their common life in the vine.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus recognized that the future community would need the aid of the Spirit. His teachings on this subject laid the foundation for the evident dependence of the early church on the Spirit, as seen in the book of Acts. Finally, it should be noted that there is a close connection between the church and the kingdom, although they are not identical. The kingdom is more comprehensive than the church, which is included within it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheFuture\">Teachings about the Future<\/p>\n<p>Jesus thought of the kingdom in terms of both present realization and future hope. The future aspect is related to the end of the age. Although he did not spell it out in specific terms, Jesus did not leave his disciples without any knowledge of how the present age would end. He gave firm assurance that he would return at some time in the future.<\/p>\n<p>He told the disciples that the Son of Man would come with his angels in his Father’s glory (Mt 16:27). In the discourse in which he answers the disciples’ question about the end of the world, he speaks again of the Son of Man coming in clouds with power and glory (Mk 13:26), probably drawn from the familiar language of Daniel 7. Jesus described various signs that would precede his own coming. He spoke of wars, conflicts, earthquakes, famines, and disturbances in the heavens. The gospel was to be preached to all nations. At the same time many false Christs would arise.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus gave such details about his return to encourage his disciples in the face of persecution. The future hope had a definitely practical purpose. The disciples were urged to watch. The coming would happen as unexpectedly as a thief in the night. Jesus said that even he himself did not know when the coming would take place (Mk 13:32).<\/p>\n<p>Another important theme affecting the future is emphasized in Jesus’ teachings about resurrection. The Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the body. They attempted to trap Jesus with a question about a woman who had been married seven times. They wanted to know whose husband she would be at the resurrection (Mk 12:18-27). Jesus pointed out that there would be no marriage when the dead rise. The Sadducees’ idea about resurrection was clearly wrong. Jesus’ teaching was that the resurrected would be like the angels. There is no doubt about the resurrection of the dead, although no information is given about the resurrection body. Jesus told a story about a rich man and a poor man who both died (Lk 16:19-31). In the afterlife the rich man cries out in torment, while the poor man enjoys a state of blessedness. What is most clear from this is the certainty of the afterlife and the fact of a distinction between the two men, although we are not told on what grounds the distinction is made. Elsewhere in his teachings, Jesus suggested that the most vital requirement is faith in himself. The conversation between Jesus and the dying thief on the cross suggests that paradise for the latter consisted in an awareness of the presence of Jesus (Lk 23:42-43).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of rewards and punishment occurs in many passages. In Matthew 16:27 Jesus says that the Son of Man will reward everyone according to what he or she has done. Those who are worthless are promised punishment in darkness (Mt 25:30). Moreover, Jesus spoke of a day of judgment on which men and women must give an account, even of all their careless words (12:36-37). In the parable of the sheep and the goats, he spoke of a separation that the Son of Man will make when he comes. Those commended are those who have shown concern for the believers (25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Among Jesus’ most solemn statements are those that speak of hell. There is no way of getting around his teachings about eternal punishment for the unrighteous (as in Mt 25:41, 46), which is opposite to the eternal life promised to the righteous. He taught that his disciples would have a place prepared for them in heaven (Jn 14:2), and spoke of a Book of Life in which the names of his disciples were written (Lk 10:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutMoralIssues\">Teachings about Moral Issues<\/p>\n<p>Much of the teaching of Jesus is concerned with moral issues—so much so that some scholars have concluded that this was the main burden of his teaching. But the moral teachings cannot be considered apart from the many facets of his teachings outlined above. It has been said that there are close parallels between the teachings of Jesus and the moral teachings of Judaism. What is distinctive about Jesus’ teachings about morality is that the motive and power behind moral conduct is not conceived in terms of laws that must be obeyed. Right conduct is seen to be the result of a right relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was himself the pattern for moral behavior. He made clear that his aim was to fulfill the will of God. There is no sense of legalism in his approach to ethical decisions. When—in the Sermon on the Mount—he compared his own teaching with that of Moses, he showed the importance of penetrating to the inner meaning (cf. Mt 5:21-22, 27-28, 31-32). On the face of it, Jesus made more rigorous demands than the Mosaic law, because he was concerned with probing the motives as well as the actions. Many have dismissed the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount as entirely impractical, but Jesus never intended that his teaching would be easy; he set as a target nothing less than the perfection of God himself (Mt 5:48). Nevertheless, he called his yoke easy and his burden light (11:29-30), which suggests that he was not setting out an impossible ethical pattern. It must be remembered that he was not producing a manifesto for society. His concern was that each individual should have powerful motives for right decisions on matters of conduct. His reaction against a rigid application of Sabbath observance at the expense of the welfare of a needy person illustrates this point. Concern for others was rated higher than ritual correctness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>No account of the life and teachings of Jesus would be complete without some indication of the place that Jesus Christ gained in the developing church. Such a quest naturally takes us outside the scope of the Gospels into the testimony of the book of Acts and Paul’s letters. There we can see whether the predictions of Jesus were fulfilled and whether in fact the early Christians took his teaching seriously. Although there can be no question that Jesus Christ became central to the faith of the early Christians, he was regarded from many points of view. He was seen as Messiah in the sense of a spiritual deliverer, as Lord in the sense of being sovereign over his people, as Servant in the sense of his obedience to suffering, as Son in his relation to his Father. In many ways the full understanding of what and who he was could not have occurred until after the resurrection. Therefore, we find that many facets of his teachings about himself were more fully developed in the reflections of his people. This is true in a special sense of the writings of the apostle Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Many have found a problem in linking the Gospels with their detailed presentation of the acts and teachings of Jesus with the Christ who is so central in Paul’s beliefs. The problem arises because the apostle does not refer to any specific incident in the life of Jesus and does not reflect in his epistles any acquaintance with the large amount of teaching material in the Gospels. Does this suggest that Paul had no interest in the historical Jesus? Or could it be maintained that he knew nothing about him? Those who have driven a wedge between Paul and Jesus have not given sufficient weight to those incidental indications that Paul knew a great deal more about the historical Jesus than he states in his letters. He writes, for instance, about the meekness and gentleness of Christ (2 Cor 10:1), suggesting that he knew that Jesus had said of himself that he was meek and lowly of heart (Mt 11:29). Moreover, Paul speaks of the poverty of Christ (2 Cor 8:9) and must have known that the Son of Man had nowhere to lay his head. He certainly knows the details of how Jesus instituted the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-26), and he knows of his death by crucifixion. It seems reasonable to conclude that Paul assumes that his readers will be acquainted with the Gospel material.<\/p>\n<p>It is perhaps useful in this connection to inquire whether the life and teachings of Jesus played a significant part in the early Christian proclamation. One passage that is valuable in this respect is Acts 10:36-38. In Peter’s address to Cornelius, he spoke of God’s having anointed Jesus of Nazareth, and of Jesus’ having gone about doing good and healing all who were under the power of the devil. It is clear that some account of the acts of Jesus was included in the early preaching, and there is no reason to suppose that this was not a regular procedure.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the example of Jesus was a powerful motive for promoting right behavior. Peter appeals to it in encouraging Christians who were suffering for their faith (1 Pt 2:21). Paul also knows the value of imitation (1 Cor 11:1; 1 Thes 1:6). Since Jesus was recognized as being a man who did not sin (cf. 2 Cor 5:21), his behavior patterns would have proved invaluable for those who needed a new standard for moral action. While this idea of example is unquestionably present in the Epistles, it would be quite wrong to suppose that it formed a major part of Christian doctrine.<\/p>\n<p>There are a few references to the teachings of Jesus in the non-Gospel portion of the NT. In the Letter of James, which is almost wholly practical, there are more allusions to the teachings of Jesus than anywhere else in the NT. This is especially true in echoes of the Sermon on the Mount, and it shows the strong contribution that the moral teaching of Jesus had on the ethical values of the early Christians. Most of the expositions of doctrine in the Epistles find their basis in some aspect of the teachings of Jesus. These teachings have an ongoing significance for the development of the church.<\/p>\n<p>To what extent is knowledge of the life and teachings of Jesus relevant to the 21st century? Existential theologians have driven such a wedge between the Christ of faith and the Jesus of history that the latter has ceased to have any importance for them. Christians today, no less than their first-century predecessors, need to know that the object of their faith is the same one who lived and taught in Galilee and Judea.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ascension of Christ; Christ; Christology; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Incarnation; Jesus Christ; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah; Parable; Savior; Son of God; Son of Man; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESUS CHRIST, Teachings of<\/h3>\n<p>Because of the wide variety of forms in which the teachings of Jesus have been preserved, it is difficult to bring out the essence of that teaching in a systematic way. Jesus did not present us with a theological system. His words were essentially practical in intent. Yet from all the variety of sayings it is possible to extract a clear idea of what Jesus thought about a number of important issues. What was his teaching about God? What did he think about himself? What did he mean when he spoke about the kingdom? What light does his teaching throw on the meaning of his death? What did he say about the Holy Spirit? How did he describe human beings and their needs? Did he anticipate the Christian church? Did he teach anything about the end of the world? What were the main features of his moral teaching? The following sections will seek to answer these important questions.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about God<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Himself<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Kingdom of God<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about His Own Death<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Holy Spirit<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Humanity<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Church<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about the Future<\/p>\n<p>• Teachings about Moral Issues<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutGod\">Teachings about God<\/p>\n<p>Anyone who comes to the teachings of Jesus after reading the OT will at once recognize that much of his teaching about God is the same. Since Jesus, as all orthodox Jews of his day, accepted the testimony of the OT as inspired, it is not surprising that his approach to God was similar. This is especially true of his assumption that God was Creator. He taught a special providential care over the created order and affirmed that God watched over such small creatures as the sparrow (Mt 10:29). There is no support in the teachings of Jesus for the view that God is uninterested in the world he made.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic titles Jesus used for God was Father. This was not new, for the idea occurs in the OT, where God is seen as Father of his people Israel. This kind of fatherhood was national rather than personal. In the intertestamental period the Jews came to regard God as so holy that he was removed from direct contact with human affairs. There had to be mediators between God and people. This exalted notion of God was not conducive to the idea of God as Father, and it is against this background that the uniqueness of the personal fatherhood of God in the teaching of Jesus must be seen. There is some evidence in Judaism that prayer to God as “Our Father” was known, but what distinguishes Jesus’ teachings from that of his contemporaries is that the fatherhood of God was central to what he taught.<\/p>\n<p>The father-son relationship is particularly vivid in John’s Gospel, where Jesus as Son is seen to be in close communion with God as Father. This comes out strongly in Jesus’ prayer in John 17 and in the frequent assertions that the Father had sent the Son and that the Son was doing the will of the Father. It is this strong relationship between God and Jesus in terms of fatherhood and sonship that led Jesus to teach men to approach God in the same way. The Lord’s Prayer at once recognizes this in its opening words. It is particularly important to note that “Our Father” precedes “hallowed be thy name,” for the more intimate idea prepares the way for the more remote. Jesus never taught men to approach God with terror.<\/p>\n<p>Although there is a connection between the way in which Jesus addressed God as Father and the way in which he taught his disciples to approach God, there is also a distinction. Jesus spoke of “my Father and your Father” when he appeared to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection (Jn 20:17), but he did not say “our Father.” His sonship was unique, for he claimed that he and the Father were one (Jn 10:30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus assured his followers that their heavenly Father knows about their needs (Mt 6:32; Lk 12:30), on the strength of which they are exhorted not to be anxious. This gives some insight into the way in which Jesus’ teachings about God has a bearing on practical issues.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHimself\">Teachings about Himself<\/p>\n<p>What Jesus said about himself is of great importance, for this undoubtedly formed the basis of what the early church came to teach about him.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used certain titles of himself or accepted them as descriptions of himself when they were used by others. The most widely used is Son of Man. This title was used by Jesus to refer to himself but was not used by anyone else. It was used, moreover, in several different kinds of sayings. Sometimes the sayings related directly to the public ministry of Jesus, like the saying that the Son of Man was Lord of the Sabbath (Mk 2:28), or that the Son of Man had authority to forgive sins (v 10). Sometimes the sayings had a direct bearing on the Passion, as when Jesus said that the Son of Man must suffer many things (Mk 8:31; note that Mt 16:21 has “he” instead of “Son of Man”). At other times the reference is to a future appearance, as when Jesus declared to the high priest that he would see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of Power and coming on the clouds of heaven (Mk 14:62). What did Jesus mean by the title, and why did he use it?<\/p>\n<p>The title “Son of Man” had been used before. The phrase occurs in Psalm 8:4, where it refers to man or humans. Again, the expression is used many times in Ezekiel as a mode of address to the prophet, but here also it means man. A rather different use occurs in Daniel 7:13, where one like a son of man comes with the clouds before the Ancient of Days. There is a strong similarity between this passage and the words of Jesus in Mark 14:62. But an important difference is that whereas Son of Man becomes a title in Mark, it is not so in Daniel. There is some evidence for the title in Jewish apocalyptic literature (e.g., in the Similitudes of Enoch), where it represents a preexistent being who will come to judge and overthrow the enemies of God. It seems evident from this that Jesus’ use of Son of Man as a title is unique.<\/p>\n<p>The Son of Man sayings are distributed throughout the four Gospels, and there are no appreciable differences in their uses. What is at first astonishing is that though the title is so widespread in the Gospels on the lips of Jesus, it never became a name by which Jesus was known by the early Christians. In fact, only in Acts 7:56 does the title appear, in this case used by Stephen. It is clear, therefore, that it had a special meaning for Jesus that it did not have for others. There is no doubt that he was referring to himself and not to someone else, as a careful study of all the Son of Man sayings shows. Those who think that Jesus was referring to someone else arrive at this conclusion only after first dispensing with some of the sayings. The most probable reason why he used the title Son of Man was because he wanted to avoid a term like Messiah, which carried with it too many political overtones. But what did Son of Man mean to Jesus? It is rich with the idea of humanness, possibly allusions to Daniel’s “son of man,” and perhaps a touch of the Suffering Servant idea from Isaiah 53. It is most likely that Jesus saw it in terms of his mission in a way that his hearers could not fully appreciate. It is also probable that the early church preferred Messiah because this title carried the meaning of a royal deliverer; also, after the death of Jesus, there would be no further fear of political misunderstanding.<\/p>\n<p>The term Messiah, or Christ, does not belong strictly to the teachings of Jesus, since he himself never used it. The most striking instance where he accepted the ascription of Messiah was in Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi. All the synoptic Gospels record the confession “You are the Christ,” while Matthew adds the significant comment by Jesus that flesh and blood had not revealed it but “my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17). He certainly accepted the confession and regarded it as revelation. One other case in the Synoptics where he does not specifically refute messiahship is his answer to the high priest’s question “Are you the Messiah?” (Mk 14:61). In John’s Gospel, Andrew tells Peter that he had found the Messiah (Jn 1:41); the woman at Samaria talks to Jesus, and he reveals that he is the Messiah (4:25-26). There was a widespread expectation among the Jews that a deliverer would come to overthrow their political enemies, the Romans. There were various ideas about his origin (a military leader or a heavenly warrior) and his methods (the Zealots believed that deliverance could come only through armed revolution). The reticence of Jesus concerning messiahship is therefore readily understandable.<\/p>\n<p>Another title of utmost importance is Son of God, although it occurs mainly in John’s Gospel. That both Mark and John regarded Jesus in this light is clear from explicit statements in their Gospels (cf. Mk 1:1; Jn 20:30-31). There are certainly passages where Messiah is linked with Son of God and where Jesus rejects neither title (cf. Mt 16:16). But in the teachings of Jesus one passage makes abundantly clear the special relationship that Jesus had with God as Son—namely, Matthew 11:27 (also Lk 10:22, a parallel passage), where Jesus implies that he is the Son of the Father.<\/p>\n<p>Many similar passages in John’s Gospel are, however, more explicit. The Son is unquestionably preexistent, because he knows he came from the Father and returns to the Father. It is not possible from the many references to sonship in John’s Gospel to come to any other conclusion than that Jesus regarded himself as divine. It is particularly important to note that it is also in this Gospel that Jesus is portrayed most clearly in his human nature with its attendant weaknesses. Nowhere in the teachings of Jesus did he explain how God could become man, but he assumed this as a fact. He taught with the authority of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheKingdomofGod\">Teachings about the Kingdom of God<\/p>\n<p>No one can read the synoptic Gospels without being impressed with the frequency with which the expression “kingdom of God” (or of heaven) occurs. It was clearly an important theme in the whole teaching of Jesus. It is less evident in John’s Gospel but is nevertheless still present. Many of the parables of Jesus are specifically called parables of the kingdom. Jesus’ concept of the kingdom provided a foundational idea to the Christian gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The main idea is the rule of God over people rather than a realm that belongs to God. In other words, the emphasis is on the active reigning of the King. This is important because it means that the kingdom is inextricably affected by relationships between the members and the King. It also means the kingdom will not be expressed in institutional terms.<\/p>\n<p>There is one problem with the kingdom teachings that must be faced: its timing. Some sayings imply that it is already present, while others suggest that it will not come until the future. Some scholars disavow the idea that present and future can be held together; therefore, they reject one and concentrate on the other. Those who maintain a present understanding of the kingdom developed the idea of a social gospel, since Christianity was defined as the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth. According to this view, there is no place for a future arrival of the kingdom. On the other hand, some have denied altogether the present aspect and concentrate on the future. In this case, it is difficult to see in what sense the kingdom teachings are relevant.<\/p>\n<p>Yet others have insisted that since both present and future aspects are found in the Gospel records, no explanation is satisfying that denies one at the expense of the other. One possible solution is to regard the present aspects as applying to this age but as not reaching their fulfillment until the future establishment of the kingdom. A similar solution, expressed differently, is to maintain that the reality is a future kingdom but that it has spilled over into the present. Jesus intentionally included both present and future aspects.<\/p>\n<p>That the kingdom was a theme of common interest is clear from Luke 17:20-21, where the Pharisees asked Jesus when it was coming. His answer, that it was among them, shows unmistakably a present idea. This is equally true of the statement that in the exorcism of evil spirits the kingdom had arrived (Mt 12:28; Lk 11:20). Moreover, Jesus mentioned that the kingdom has been forcefully advancing (Mt 11:12), by which he did not mean by revolutionary methods, although he clearly implied that something dynamic was already happening. This idea of dynamic power is one of the most characteristic features of the kingdom. Jesus spoke of binding the strong, armed man (Lk 11:21-22), which shows that in his ministry he expected to give a powerful demonstration against the forces of darkness.<\/p>\n<p>It is evident that the kingdom Jesus proclaimed was a kingdom in which God was supreme. It was inseparably linked with his redemptive mission, in which God was bringing spiritual deliverance to his people. Moreover, the kingdom teachings of Jesus cannot be regarded in isolation. It is part of the total message; no part of that message can be divorced from any other part without distorting the whole.<\/p>\n<p>The clearest teachings on the future aspect of the kingdom are to be found in some of the parables (Mt 13) and in the discourse on the Mt of Olives (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). In the latter, Jesus spoke of the future using imagery drawn from Jewish literature, like the references to clouds, to glory, and to angels in relation to the coming of the Son of Man (Mk 13:26-27). In Matthew’s account there is reference to a trumpet call, another familiar feature (Mt 24:31).<\/p>\n<p>Various features from the kingdom parables give the clearest idea of the nature of the kingdom. Membership in the kingdom is not considered to be universal, for in the parable of the sower not all the soils are productive. The same separation is seen in the parable of the tares and the parable of the dragnet. The tares are destroyed and only the wheat is harvested, while the bad fish are discarded. The members of the kingdom are those who hear and understand the word of the kingdom (Mt 13:23). It is clear, therefore, that a response is necessary if the benefits of the kingdom are to be enjoyed.<\/p>\n<p>There is an emphasis on growth in the parable of the mustard seed, where rapid development occurs from small beginnings. The parables of the treasure and the pearl are intended to underline the value of the kingdom. The universal character of the kingdom comes out sharply in the parable of the vineyard, where the kingdom is said to be taken away from the Jews and given to another “nation,” presumably an allusion to the Gentiles (Mt 21:43). This is in line with the great commission Jesus gave to his disciples to preach to all nations (28:19). A universal kingdom would certainly be entirely different from the messianic kingdom idea of Judaism, in which Israel was to be the central unit. It is not easy to appreciate how revolutionary the idea was of a worldwide kingdom with Gentiles and Jews on the same footing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHisOwnDeath\">Teachings about His Own Death<\/p>\n<p>The announcement of the kingdom must be linked with Jesus’ approach to his own death. Did Jesus see his death as an integral part of his mission? Some have maintained that he ended his life in disillusionment, but a brief survey of his teaching about his own destiny is sufficient to dispel such a theory. To the further question, “What meaning did Jesus attach to his forthcoming death?” he gave a series of passing indications that, when taken together, supply us with a basis on which to reconstruct some idea of the place of his death within the entire range of his mission.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to note that many times Jesus showed his awareness that details of his life were a fulfillment of Scripture (cf. Mt 26:24, 56; Mk 9:12; Lk 18:31; 24:25-27, 44-45). In all the instances cited, the suffering of Jesus is referred to as the subject of OT prophecy. This must mean that he had reflected on OT predictions and recognized that they could be fulfilled only through his own sufferings. In this case the Passion must be regarded as an indispensable part of Jesus’ consciousness of his own mission.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis on fulfillment of Scripture is also seen in John’s Gospel. His statement that the Son of Man must be lifted up even as Moses lifted up the serpent (Jn 3:14) illustrates this point. Most of the passages where fulfillment of Scripture is mentioned are the comments of the Evangelist, John. But there can be no doubt that the fulfillment motive played a vital part both in Jesus’ own understanding of his mission and in the early Christians’ understanding of his death. In this connection, some hold that John puts more stress on the Incarnation as a means of salvation in that he sees it as an illumination of the mind. But this is only part of the truth, for there is more on the meaning of the death of Jesus in John’s Gospel than in the others.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels emphasize the divine necessity of the death of Jesus. In addition to the fulfillment motive, the idea of necessity is strong in the first prediction by Jesus of his approaching death. In John’s Gospel Jesus speaks of his “hour” several times in the earlier stages of his ministry as “not yet,” but in the later stages as having arrived. There is a sense of definite movement toward a climax, the hour undoubtedly being the hour of the Passion (cf. Jn 17:1). There is not room for any disillusionment here. Jesus knew that only through the hour of death could the Father be glorified. The climax was according to an orderly plan.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus evidently regarded his death as in some ways a sacrifice. The clearest indication of this is in the words of institution at the Last Supper. The cup is connected with the blood of the new covenant, which is said to be for the “remission of sins” (Mt 26:26-28). No explanation is given of the way in which the coming death, signified by the broken bread and poured-out wine, would bring about forgiveness of sins. But the immediate realization by the early church that Christ died for our sins (cf. 1 Cor 15:3) shows that the importance of what Jesus said had been clearly grasped. The new covenant idea is parallel to the old covenant, which according to Exodus 24 was sealed with sacrificial blood; there can be little doubt that Jesus had this in mind when he spoke the words about the new covenant. It was also akin to the ideas expressed in Jeremiah 31, referring to a covenant written on the heart rather than graven in stone.<\/p>\n<p>Another aspect of the death of Christ seen especially in John’s Gospel is the sense of completion that went with it. In Jesus’ prayer in John 17, as he faces the cross, he declares that he has finished the work that the Father had given him to do (Jn 17:4). This is reinforced by the cry from the cross, “It is finished,” which only John records (19:30). This sense of accomplishment gives an air of triumph to what might otherwise have been considered a disaster.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheHolySpirit\">Teachings about the Holy Spirit<\/p>\n<p>At several of the major events in the life of Jesus, the Evangelists note the activity of the Spirit (e.g., the Virgin Birth, the Baptism, the Temptation). It is to be expected, therefore, that Jesus would have instructed his disciples about the Spirit. However, there is surprisingly little in the synoptic Gospels on this theme. Most of the teachings come from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus began his preaching ministry in Nazareth, according to Luke, he read the statement in Isaiah 61:1-2 about the Spirit of God and applied it to himself. He saw his ministry as being inaugurated by the Spirit. This becomes clear in the way in which he responded to the charge that he cast out demons by means of Beelzebub, prince of the demons. He identified the reality of the coming of the kingdom by the fact that he was casting out evil spirits by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). He was, moreover, sensitive to the seriousness of blaspheming the Spirit, which he implies his accusers were in danger of doing. Whatever he did in his ministry he saw as an activity of the Spirit, and this was especially so in the contest with evil spirits.<\/p>\n<p>While warning his disciples that they would meet with opposition, Jesus assured them of the Spirit’s support when they were forced to appear before kings or governors (Mt 10:19-20; Mk 13:11). Indeed, he told them that the Spirit would speak through them, thus emphasizing that he expected a continuation of the Spirit’s activity in the future. Luke records one instance in which Jesus comments on what fathers will do for their children and asks whether God will not give the Holy Spirit to those who ask (Lk 11:13). The assumption is that God regards the Holy Spirit as the best gift to give his children. On yet another occasion, Jesus recognized that David was inspired by the Holy Spirit when he wrote Psalm 110 (Mk 12:36), reflecting Jesus’ belief in the Spirit’s agency in the production of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of John provides a more detailed development of what Jesus taught about the Spirit. Teachings about the Spirit are usually linked to Jesus’ teachings about giving eternal life to those who believe in him and receive him. At the same time he spoke of the new birth and eternal life to Nicodemus, Jesus also spoke of the Spirit (Jn 3:3-8, 15-16). When he spoke of water of life to the Samaritan woman, he also spoke of the Spirit (4:14, 23-24). The same holds true for the discourses on the bread of life (6:48-63) and river of life (7:37-39). Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life, but no one could really partake of these until after the Lord was resurrected. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive a certain measure of life via the Lord’s words, because his words were themselves spirit and life (6:63), but it was not until the Spirit would become available that the believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life.<\/p>\n<p>After the Lord’s discourse in John 6 (a discourse that was very troubling and offensive to most of his disciples), Jesus said, “It is the Spirit who gives eternal life” (6:63). When the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “This He spoke of the Spirit, . . . for the Spirit was not yet given, because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39, <span>nasb<\/span>). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for men to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by men; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat of him or drink of him until the Spirit of the glorified Jesus was made available, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples were regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as Spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “We know he lives in us because the Holy Spirit lives in us” (1 Jn 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>The indwelling Spirit helped the disciples remember Jesus’ words and actions (Jn 14:26) so that they could teach and write about them with acumen. This means that Jesus did not intend that the preservation of his teachings should be left to chance. All too often theories attempting to explain the way in which the traditions about Jesus and his teachings were transmitted in the period before there were any written Gospels are suggested without any reference to the Holy Spirit. It is not acceptable to concentrate on so-called laws of oral tradition and pay no attention to the unique factor in this case—the Holy Spirit. It is part of the Spirit’s mission to preserve and transmit the teaching of Jesus. What Jesus says in this passage about the Spirit has far-reaching significance for the formation of the Gospels.<\/p>\n<p>Another important function is the activity of the Spirit in the world. Jesus made it clear that the Spirit would convict of sin, of righteousness, and of judgment (Jn 16:8). Without the activity of the Spirit, there would be no possibility of the disciples making any impact on the world. Nevertheless, Jesus warned that the world could not receive the Spirit because it did not know him (14:17). The mystery of the Spirit is that he dwells in every believer. This indwelling aspect is of great importance and was particularly developed in the writings of Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutHumanity\">Teachings about Humanity<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught about God’s providential care over all human beings. A person’s hairs are all numbered (Mt 10:30), which is a vivid way of saying that God is concerned about the details of human life. But God is far more concerned with the eternal soul. Jesus made it clear that it would be unprofitable for anyone to gain the world and to lose his or her soul (Mt 16:26; Mk 8:36; Lk 9:25). The focus falls on what a person is and not what he or she has. Jesus even said that a maimed body was preferable to a forfeited life (Mk 9:43-47). One’s total fulfillment depends more on one’s spiritual condition than on one’s environment or physical well-being. He was not, of course, unconcerned about people’s physical state, as his many healings show, but his major concern was with people’s relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus never viewed humans as isolated individuals. Within God’s community people were expected to have responsibility toward one another. The Sermon on the Mount illustrated this social emphasis in the teaching of Jesus. Those who are merciful to others will obtain mercy (Mt 5:7). There is special commendation for peacemakers (v 9). The disciples of Jesus are expected to bring light to others (v 16). They are expected to give more than expected (v 40). Jesus is clearly saying that people have responsibility beyond themselves.<\/p>\n<p>The relation of people to God is one of dependence. Jesus taught men and women to pray to God for daily bread (Mt 6:11) as a reminder that they cannot be wholly self-sufficient. He allowed no place in his teaching for humans to boast in their own achievements.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had some specific things to say about home life. He accepted the sanctity of the marriage contract (Mt 5:31-32; cf. 19:3-9) and therefore showed a high regard for the honor and rights of the wife. It was more in his actions and attitudes rather than his specific teachings that Jesus showed his regard for the status of women. When he spoke of men, he often used the term in the sense of people, including both men and women. There is no suggestion that in matters of faith women were in the least inferior to men. Moreover, Luke points out how many women supported Jesus and his disciples in their travels.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had a high view of the human potential but also acknowledged their present condition. The stress on repentance (Mt 4:17) shows a sinfulness of which people need to repent. This sense of need is implicit in the instances where Jesus pronounces forgiveness (e.g., to the paralytic, Mt 9:1-8; and to the woman who anointed him, Lk 7:47-48). In the Lord’s Prayer, Jesus instructs his disciples to pray for forgiveness (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4). He takes for granted that they need it and desire to obtain it.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus gives no support to any self-righteousness in men or women. This is the burden of his criticism of the religious leaders in various sayings, but particularly in Matthew 23. He was critical of Jewish teachers because they placed so much importance on works of merit as contributing to salvation. His whole approach depended on humans casting themselves on the mercy of God. This is vividly illustrated in the parable about the Pharisee and the tax collector at prayer (Lk 18:10-14). It was the latter who threw himself on the mercy of God and who was commended by Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Undoubtedly, Jesus regarded sin as universal. He never suggested that there was anyone who was exempt from it. The major concept of sin in his teachings was alienation from God. This comes out clearly in John’s Gospel, with its strong antithesis between light and darkness, life and death (cf. Jn 5:24). Indeed, the “world” in John’s Gospel represents the system that takes no account of God. But sin is also seen as enslavement to Satan. The life and teachings of Jesus are seen against the background of spiritual conflict. Jesus can even say to his opponents, “You are of your father the devil” (Jn 8:44). He assumes throughout that there are hostile forces bringing man into subjection.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, sin against God is linked with sin before the father. In other words, it is regarded in terms of rebellion and revolt (Lk 15:21). This is a different assessment of the son’s offense than the one arrived at by the elder brother, who could see it only in terms of property. The view that humans are essentially in a state of rebellion against God is a basic tenet of Paul’s theological position, and it is important to note that it finds its root in the teachings of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>There is no question that Jesus had much to say about condemnation. Those who did not believe and were therefore outside the provision of salvation that Jesus had made are declared to be already condemned (Jn 3:18). At various times Jesus mentioned judgment to come, which shows that a person’s destiny is related to his or her present spiritual condition. Against this background of humanity’s spiritual need, the whole mission of Jesus must be seen. A person, if left to himself or herself, would be totally unable to achieve salvation, but Jesus came to offer eternal life to those who believe in him (Jn 3:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheChurch\">Teachings about the Church<\/p>\n<p>Some have supposed that Jesus did not predict that there would be a church. But on two occasions he used the word “church,” which means a people called out by God. On one of the occasions—at Caesarea Philippi—Jesus told Peter that he would build his church upon the rock (Mt 16:16-19). It seems most probable that “rock” was intended to link the foundation of the church to Peter’s particular confession about Jesus. It is certain that the later church was a community that affirmed that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of the living God. It is important to note that it is Christ himself who is the builder of the church. He assured his disciples that it would be impregnable (the gates of hades would not overcome it). Moreover, one of the functions of the church was to proclaim forgiveness of sins, and this is implied in what Jesus said to Peter. That the words were not intended to refer exclusively to him is clear from Matthew 18:18, where similar words were addressed to all the disciples. The church, according to Matthew 18:17, was to be a community that could settle disputes between believers.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to these specific references to the church, Jesus assumed that his followers would meet together in his name (Mt 18:19-20). In his final words in Matthew’s account, he commissioned them to teach what he had taught them and to baptize new disciples (Mt 28:19-20). He promised his presence would be with them. The command to baptize was reinforced by Jesus’ own example in submitting to John’s baptism. One other special rite that Jesus expected his disciples to observe was the Lord’s Supper. His instructions about this presuppose a later community that could observe it. Since the form of words used in the institution point to the meaning of the death of Christ, it is clear that Jesus intended the future community to be frequently reminded of the center of the faith. The Christian church was to be a group of people who knew that through Christ they had entered into a new relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Although there are no references to the church in John’s Gospel, there are certainly hints that support the community idea. Jesus introduced himself as the Shepherd and spoke of his followers as forming a flock (Jn 10:16). The sheep imagery occurs again in this Gospel when Peter is instructed three times by the risen Lord to feed the sheep (Jn 21:15-17). Another figure of speech that Jesus used to bring out the group idea is that of the many branches that draw their life from the vine, and therefore belong to each other because of their common life in the vine.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus recognized that the future community would need the aid of the Spirit. His teachings on this subject laid the foundation for the evident dependence of the early church on the Spirit, as seen in the book of Acts. Finally, it should be noted that there is a close connection between the church and the kingdom, although they are not identical. The kingdom is more comprehensive than the church, which is included within it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsabouttheFuture\">Teachings about the Future<\/p>\n<p>Jesus thought of the kingdom in terms of both present realization and future hope. The future aspect is related to the end of the age. Although he did not spell it out in specific terms, Jesus did not leave his disciples without any knowledge of how the present age would end. He gave firm assurance that he would return at some time in the future.<\/p>\n<p>He told the disciples that the Son of Man would come with his angels in his Father’s glory (Mt 16:27). In the discourse in which he answers the disciples’ question about the end of the world, he speaks again of the Son of Man coming in clouds with power and glory (Mk 13:26), probably drawn from the familiar language of Daniel 7. Jesus described various signs that would precede his own coming. He spoke of wars, conflicts, earthquakes, famines, and disturbances in the heavens. The gospel was to be preached to all nations. At the same time many false Christs would arise.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus gave such details about his return to encourage his disciples in the face of persecution. The future hope had a definitely practical purpose. The disciples were urged to watch. The coming would happen as unexpectedly as a thief in the night. Jesus said that even he himself did not know when the coming would take place (Mk 13:32).<\/p>\n<p>Another important theme affecting the future is emphasized in Jesus’ teachings about resurrection. The Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the body. They attempted to trap Jesus with a question about a woman who had been married seven times. They wanted to know whose husband she would be at the resurrection (Mk 12:18-27). Jesus pointed out that there would be no marriage when the dead rise. The Sadducees’ idea about resurrection was clearly wrong. Jesus’ teaching was that the resurrected would be like the angels. There is no doubt about the resurrection of the dead, although no information is given about the resurrection body. Jesus told a story about a rich man and a poor man who both died (Lk 16:19-31). In the afterlife the rich man cries out in torment, while the poor man enjoys a state of blessedness. What is most clear from this is the certainty of the afterlife and the fact of a distinction between the two men, although we are not told on what grounds the distinction is made. Elsewhere in his teachings, Jesus suggested that the most vital requirement is faith in himself. The conversation between Jesus and the dying thief on the cross suggests that paradise for the latter consisted in an awareness of the presence of Jesus (Lk 23:42-43).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of rewards and punishment occurs in many passages. In Matthew 16:27 Jesus says that the Son of Man will reward everyone according to what he or she has done. Those who are worthless are promised punishment in darkness (Mt 25:30). Moreover, Jesus spoke of a day of judgment on which men and women must give an account, even of all their careless words (12:36-37). In the parable of the sheep and the goats, he spoke of a separation that the Son of Man will make when he comes. Those commended are those who have shown concern for the believers (25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Among Jesus’ most solemn statements are those that speak of hell. There is no way of getting around his teachings about eternal punishment for the unrighteous (as in Mt 25:41, 46), which is opposite to the eternal life promised to the righteous. He taught that his disciples would have a place prepared for them in heaven (Jn 14:2), and spoke of a Book of Life in which the names of his disciples were written (Lk 10:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingsaboutMoralIssues\">Teachings about Moral Issues<\/p>\n<p>Much of the teaching of Jesus is concerned with moral issues—so much so that some scholars have concluded that this was the main burden of his teaching. But the moral teachings cannot be considered apart from the many facets of his teachings outlined above. It has been said that there are close parallels between the teachings of Jesus and the moral teachings of Judaism. What is distinctive about Jesus’ teachings about morality is that the motive and power behind moral conduct is not conceived in terms of laws that must be obeyed. Right conduct is seen to be the result of a right relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was himself the pattern for moral behavior. He made clear that his aim was to fulfill the will of God. There is no sense of legalism in his approach to ethical decisions. When—in the Sermon on the Mount—he compared his own teaching with that of Moses, he showed the importance of penetrating to the inner meaning (cf. Mt 5:21-22, 27-28, 31-32). On the face of it, Jesus made more rigorous demands than the Mosaic law, because he was concerned with probing the motives as well as the actions. Many have dismissed the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount as entirely impractical, but Jesus never intended that his teaching would be easy; he set as a target nothing less than the perfection of God himself (Mt 5:48). Nevertheless, he called his yoke easy and his burden light (11:29-30), which suggests that he was not setting out an impossible ethical pattern. It must be remembered that he was not producing a manifesto for society. His concern was that each individual should have powerful motives for right decisions on matters of conduct. His reaction against a rigid application of Sabbath observance at the expense of the welfare of a needy person illustrates this point. Concern for others was rated higher than ritual correctness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>No account of the life and teachings of Jesus would be complete without some indication of the place that Jesus Christ gained in the developing church. Such a quest naturally takes us outside the scope of the Gospels into the testimony of the book of Acts and Paul’s letters. There we can see whether the predictions of Jesus were fulfilled and whether in fact the early Christians took his teaching seriously. Although there can be no question that Jesus Christ became central to the faith of the early Christians, he was regarded from many points of view. He was seen as Messiah in the sense of a spiritual deliverer, as Lord in the sense of being sovereign over his people, as Servant in the sense of his obedience to suffering, as Son in his relation to his Father. In many ways the full understanding of what and who he was could not have occurred until after the resurrection. Therefore, we find that many facets of his teachings about himself were more fully developed in the reflections of his people. This is true in a special sense of the writings of the apostle Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Many have found a problem in linking the Gospels with their detailed presentation of the acts and teachings of Jesus with the Christ who is so central in Paul’s beliefs. The problem arises because the apostle does not refer to any specific incident in the life of Jesus and does not reflect in his epistles any acquaintance with the large amount of teaching material in the Gospels. Does this suggest that Paul had no interest in the historical Jesus? Or could it be maintained that he knew nothing about him? Those who have driven a wedge between Paul and Jesus have not given sufficient weight to those incidental indications that Paul knew a great deal more about the historical Jesus than he states in his letters. He writes, for instance, about the meekness and gentleness of Christ (2 Cor 10:1), suggesting that he knew that Jesus had said of himself that he was meek and lowly of heart (Mt 11:29). Moreover, Paul speaks of the poverty of Christ (2 Cor 8:9) and must have known that the Son of Man had nowhere to lay his head. He certainly knows the details of how Jesus instituted the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-26), and he knows of his death by crucifixion. It seems reasonable to conclude that Paul assumes that his readers will be acquainted with the Gospel material.<\/p>\n<p>It is perhaps useful in this connection to inquire whether the life and teachings of Jesus played a significant part in the early Christian proclamation. One passage that is valuable in this respect is Acts 10:36-38. In Peter’s address to Cornelius, he spoke of God’s having anointed Jesus of Nazareth, and of Jesus’ having gone about doing good and healing all who were under the power of the devil. It is clear that some account of the acts of Jesus was included in the early preaching, and there is no reason to suppose that this was not a regular procedure.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the example of Jesus was a powerful motive for promoting right behavior. Peter appeals to it in encouraging Christians who were suffering for their faith (1 Pt 2:21). Paul also knows the value of imitation (1 Cor 11:1; 1 Thes 1:6). Since Jesus was recognized as being a man who did not sin (cf. 2 Cor 5:21), his behavior patterns would have proved invaluable for those who needed a new standard for moral action. While this idea of example is unquestionably present in the Epistles, it would be quite wrong to suppose that it formed a major part of Christian doctrine.<\/p>\n<p>There are a few references to the teachings of Jesus in the non-Gospel portion of the NT. In the Letter of James, which is almost wholly practical, there are more allusions to the teachings of Jesus than anywhere else in the NT. This is especially true in echoes of the Sermon on the Mount, and it shows the strong contribution that the moral teaching of Jesus had on the ethical values of the early Christians. Most of the expositions of doctrine in the Epistles find their basis in some aspect of the teachings of Jesus. These teachings have an ongoing significance for the development of the church.<\/p>\n<p>To what extent is knowledge of the life and teachings of Jesus relevant to the 21st century? Existential theologians have driven such a wedge between the Christ of faith and the Jesus of history that the latter has ceased to have any importance for them. Christians today, no less than their first-century predecessors, need to know that the object of their faith is the same one who lived and taught in Galilee and Judea.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ascension of Christ; Christ; Christology; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Incarnation; Jesus Christ; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah; Parable; Savior; Son of God; Son of Man; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESUS CHRIST, Teachings of Because of the wide variety of forms in which the teachings of Jesus have been preserved, it is difficult to bring out the essence of that teaching in a systematic way. Jesus did not present us with a theological system. His words were essentially practical in intent. Yet from all the variety of sayings it is possible to extract a clear idea of what Jesus thought about a number of important issues. What was his teaching about God? What did he think about himself? Wh...","summary_en":"JESUS CHRIST, Teachings of Because of the wide variety of forms in which the teachings of Jesus have been preserved, it is difficult to bring out the essence of that teaching in a systematic way. Jesus did not present us with a theological system. His words were essentially practical in intent. Yet from all the variety of sayings it is possible to extract a clear idea of what Jesus thought about a number of important issues. What was his teaching about God? What did he think about himself? Wh...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56671,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","summary_en":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56672,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","summary_en":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84297,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","summary_en":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84298,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","summary_en":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111923,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","summary_en":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111924,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","summary_en":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139549,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8-11<\/strong> One of the Spirit’s roles is to <em>convict the world<\/em>. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","summary_en":"16:8-11 One of the Spirit’s roles is to convict the world. Convict is a legal term: The world had conducted its trial of Jesus, examining the evidence for his case (his signs and claims). Now the world would stand trial before the Spirit, and its guilt would be proven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139550,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:8","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:8","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:8<\/strong> The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of <em>its sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> the truth about <em>righteousness<\/em> found only in God, and <em>the coming judgment<\/em><em>,<\/em> which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","summary_en":"16:8 The Spirit unveils to the world the real nature of its sin, the truth about righteousness found only in God, and the coming judgment, which has already dawned on the world as light penetrating the darkness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66188,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93814,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121440,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149066,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":4756,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66145,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93771,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121397,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149023,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":41857,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Satan","title_en":"Satan","content_ro":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","summary_en":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69483,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Satan","title_en":"Satan","content_ro":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","summary_en":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97109,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Satan","title_en":"Satan","content_ro":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","summary_en":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124735,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Satan","title_en":"Satan","content_ro":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Satan<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">satan<\/span> is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Testament that Satan became identified with the serpent in Eden (see <em>Wisdom of Solomon<\/em> 2:24). The New Testament refers to the chief demon as “(the) Satan” (Rev 20:2), along with numerous other names such as the devil (Matt 4:1-11), the tempter (1 Thes 3:5), Beelzeboul, the ruler of demons (see textual notes at Matt 12:24; Luke 11:15), the evil one (Matt 13:19, 38; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18), Beliar (see textual note at 2 Cor 6:15), the deceiver (Rev 12:9), the great seven-headed dragon and serpent of old (Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2), a murderer, and the father of lies (John 8:44).<\/p>\n<p>Satan incited David’s census (1 Chr 21:1; cp. 2 Sam 24:1), tempted and betrayed Jesus (Mark 1:12-13; John 13:27), desired to test Peter as he had tested Job (Luke 22:31), enslaved sinners (Acts 26:17-18), and deceitfully opposed God’s people (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:14). The adversary of God’s people will be overcome in the end, when God defeats and imprisons him (Rev 12:9; 20:2, 10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:22, 32; 1 Chr 21:1; Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-4; Matt 4:1-10; 12:24; 13:19, 38-39; 16:23; Mark 1:13; 4:15; Luke 4:6; 10:17-20; 11:15; 22:3, 31; John 8:44; 12:31; 13:2, 27; 16:11; Acts 13:9-10; 26:17-18; Rom 16:20; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:10-11; 4:4; 6:15; 11:13-15; 1 Thes 3:5; 2 Thes 2:2-12; Heb 2:14; Jas 4:7; 1 Pet 5:8; 1 Jn 2:13-14; 3:12; 5:18; Rev 12:3, 9; 20:2, 10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","summary_en":"Satan The book of Job includes “the satan” among the heavenly court (Job 1:6; 2:1). The Hebrew word satan refers to an adversary or an accuser in court (see Job 1–2; Zech 3:1). God sometimes appoints angels as adversaries for righteous judgment and opposition to evildoers (e.g., Num 22:22, 32, where the term satan is often translated “block”; see also 1 Kgs 22:19-23). The Old Testament hints at the accuser’s demonic character, but it was between the times of the Old Testament and the New Test...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32999,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Revelation","title_en":"Book of Revelation","content_ro":"<h3>REVELATION, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last book of the Bible, containing revelations concerning the events of the last days.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Methods of Interpreting Revelation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The earliest witnesses ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, the son of Zebedee. Dionysius, the distinguished bishop of Alexandria and student of Origen (early third century), was the first within the church to question its apostolic authorship because it seemed to him that the writing style differed greatly from that found in the fourth Gospel, attributed to John. From the time of Dionysius, the apostolic origin of the book was disputed in the East until Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 350) turned the tide toward its acceptance. In the West, the book was widely accepted and was included in all the principal lists of canonical books from at least the middle of the second century on.<\/p>\n<p>From the internal evidence, the following things can be said about the author with some confidence. He calls himself John (Rv 1:4, 9; 22:8). This is most likely not a pseudonym but rather the name of a person well known among the Asian churches. This John identifies himself as a prophet (1:3; 22:6-10, 18-19) who was in exile because of his prophetic witness (1:9). As such, he speaks to the churches with great authority. His use of the OT and Targums makes it virtually certain that he was a Palestinian Jew, steeped in the ritual of the temple and synagogue. John the apostle fits this profile. The difference between the style of the fourth Gospel and that of Revelation can be explained by the radically different genres of the two books. The Gospel is a composed historical narrative, whereas the book of Revelation is a record of visionary experiences and direct divine revelation. The writer of the Gospel could take his time in crafting a narrative word by word and sentence by sentence. The writer of Revelation was compelled by God to write down immediately whatever he was told or was shown. Thus, the apostle John could easily have been the writer of both. In any event, no convincing argument has been advanced against his authorship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>Only two dates for Revelation have received serious support. An early date, shortly after the reign of Nero (<span>AD<\/span> 54–68), is allegedly supported by references in the book to the persecution of Christians, to the <em>Nero redivivus<\/em> myth (a revived Nero would be the reincarnation of the evil genius of the whole Roman Empire), to the imperial cult (ch 13), and to the temple (ch 11), which was destroyed in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The alternate date rests primarily on the early witness of Irenaeus, who stated that the apostle John “saw the revelation . . . at the close of Domitian’s reign” (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96).<\/p>\n<p>The origin of the book is clearly identified with Patmos, one of the Sporades Islands, located about 37 miles (59.5 kilometers) southwest of Miletus, in the Icarian Sea (1:9). John was apparently exiled on the island due to religious and\/or government persecutions arising from his witness to Jesus (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the recipients are clearly the seven historic churches in the Roman province of Asia (modern western Turkey): Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea (1:4, 11; 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation differs from the other NT writings, not in doctrine but in literary genre and subject matter. It is a book of prophecy (1:3; 22:7, 18-19) that contains both warning and consolation—announcements of future judgment and blessing— communicated by means of symbols and visions.<\/p>\n<p>The language and imagery were not as strange to first-century readers as they are today. Therefore, familiarity with the prophetic books of the OT, especially Daniel and Ezekiel, will help the reader grasp the message of the Apocalypse.<\/p>\n<p>While the symbolic and visionary mode of presentation creates ambiguity and frustration for many, it actually lends to the description of unseen realities a poignancy and clarity unattainable by any other method. Such language can trigger a variety of ideas, associations, existential involvement, and mystical responses that the straight prose found in most of the NT cannot achieve.<\/p>\n<p>The letters to the churches indicate that five of the seven were in serious trouble. The major problem seemed to be disloyalty to Christ; this may indicate that the major thrust of Revelation is not sociopolitical but theological. John was more concerned with countering the heresy that was creeping into the churches toward the close of the first century than with addressing the political situation. This heresy seems to have been a type of Gnostic teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation is also commonly viewed as belonging to the group of writings known as apocalyptic literature. The name for this type of literature is derived from the Greek word for “revelation”: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">apokalupsis<\/span><em>.<\/em> The extrabiblical apocalyptic books were written in the period from 200 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 200. Although numerous similarities exist, there are also some clear differences.<\/p>\n<p>Much more important than the Jewish apocalyptic sources is the debt John owes to the eschatological teaching of Jesus, such as the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). Revelation is unique in its use of the OT. Of the 404 verses of the Apocalypse, 278 contain references to the Jewish Scriptures. John refers frequently to Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, and also repeatedly to Exodus, Deuteronomy, and the Psalms. However, he rarely quotes the OT directly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MethodsofInterpretingRevelation\">Methods of Interpreting Revelation<\/p>\n<p>Four traditional ways of understanding Revelation 4–22 have emerged in the history of the church:<\/p>\n<h5>Futurist<\/h5>\n<p>This view holds that, with the exception of chapters 1–3, all the visions in Revelation relate to a period immediately preceding and following the second advent of Christ at the end of the age. The beasts (chs 13, 17) are identified with the future Antichrist, who will appear at the last moment in world history and will be defeated by Christ in his second coming to judge the world and to establish his earthly millennial kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Variations of this view were held by the earliest expositors, such as Justin Martyr (d. 164), Irenaeus (d. c. 195), Hippolytus (d. 236), and Victorinus (d. c. 303). This futurist approach has enjoyed a revival since the 19th century and is widely held among evangelicals today.<\/p>\n<h5>Historicist<\/h5>\n<p>As the word implies, this view sees in Revelation a prophetic survey of history. It originated with Joachim of Floris (d. 1202), a monastic who claimed to have received a special vision that revealed to him God’s plan for the ages. He assigned a day-year value to the 1,260 days of Revelation. In his scheme, the book is a prophecy of the events of Western history from the time of the apostles until Joachim’s own time. In the various schemes that developed as this method was applied to history, one element became common: the Antichrist and Babylon were connected with Rome and the papacy. Later, Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers came to adopt this view.<\/p>\n<h5>Preterist<\/h5>\n<p>According to this view, Revelation deals with the time of its author; the main contents of chapters are thus viewed as describing events wholly limited to John’s own day. The beasts (ch 13) are identified as imperial Rome and the imperial priesthood. This is the view held by many contemporary scholars.<\/p>\n<h5>Idealist<\/h5>\n<p>This method of interpreting Revelation sees it as being basically poetic, symbolic, and spiritual in nature. Thus Revelation does not predict any specific historical events at all; on the contrary, it sets forth timeless truths concerning the battle between good and evil that continues throughout the church age. As a system of interpretation, it is more recent than the other three schools.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>NT scholar H. B. Swete wrote of Revelation: “In form it is an epistle, containing an apocalyptic prophecy; in spirit and inner purpose, it is a pastoral.” As a prophet, John was called to separate true from false belief—to expose the failures of the congregations in Asia. He desired to encourage authentic Christian discipleship by explaining Christian suffering and martyrdom in light of the victory over evil won by Jesus’ death and resurrection. John was concerned to show that the martyrs (e.g., Antipas, 2:13) will be vindicated. He disclosed the end both of evil and of those who follow the Beast (19:20-21; 20:10, 15), and he described the ultimate victory of the Lamb and of those who follow him.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The main contents of Revelation are arranged in series of seven items, some explicit, some implied: seven churches (chs 2–3), seven seals (chs 6–7), seven trumpets (chs 8–11), seven bowls (chs 16–18), seven last things (chs 19–22). It is also possible to divide the contents around four key visions: (1) the vision of the Son of Man among the seven churches (chs 1–3); (2) the vision of the seven-sealed scroll, the seven trumpets, and the seven bowls (4:1–19:10); (3) the vision of the return of Christ and the consummation of this age (19:11–20:15); and (4) the vision of the new heaven and new earth (chs 21–22).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Introduction (1:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>The first three chapters of Revelation form a unit and are comparatively easy to understand. They are the most familiar and contain an introduction to the whole book (1:1-8); the first vision, of the Son of Man among the seven lampstands (1:9-20); and the letters or messages to the seven churches in Asia (2:1–3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The first eight verses introduce the whole book. They are freighted with theological content and detail. After a brief preface (1:1-3), John addresses the book to the seven churches of Asia in an expanded ancient letter form (vv 4-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Son of Man among the Lampstands (1:9-20)<\/h5>\n<p>After a brief indication of the historical situation that occasioned it (1:9-11), John describes his vision of “someone, like a son of man,” walking among seven golden lampstands (vv 12-16). The person identifies himself as the exalted Lord, Jesus Christ (vv 17-18), and then explains the meaning of the symbolic vision (vv 19-20). Finally, the Lord addresses a rather detailed and specific message to each of the seven churches in Asia (2:1–3:22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Letters to the Seven Churches (2:1–3:22)<\/h5>\n<p>These seven churches contained typical or representative qualities of both obedience and disobedience that are a constant reminder to all churches throughout every age (cf. 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; esp. 2:23). Their order (1:11; 2:1–3:22) reflects the natural ancient travel circuit beginning at Ephesus and arriving finally at Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>Each message generally follows a common literary plan consisting of seven parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The addressee is given first, following a common pattern in all seven letters: “To the angel of the church in Ephesus, write. . . .”<\/p>\n<li>2. Then the speaker is mentioned. In each case, some part of the great vision of Christ and of his self-identification (1:12-20) is repeated as the speaker identifies himself; for example, “This is the message from the one who holds the seven stars in his right hand, the one who walks among the seven gold lampstands” (2:1; cf. 1:13, 16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Next, the knowledge of the speaker is given. He intimately knows the works of the churches and the reality of their loyalty to him, despite outward appearances. In two cases (Sardis and Laodicea) the assessment proves totally negative. The enemy of Christ’s churches is the deceiver, Satan, who seeks to undermine the churches’ loyalty to Christ (2:10, 24).<\/li>\n<li>4. Following his assessment of the churches’ accomplishments, the speaker pronounces his verdict on their condition in such words as “You do not love me as you did at first” (2:4) or “You are dead” (3:1). Two letters contain no unfavorable verdict (Smyrna, Philadelphia) and two no word of commendation (Sardis, Laodicea). In the letters, all derelictions are viewed as forms of inner betrayals of a prior relation to Christ.<\/li>\n<li>5. To correct or alert each congregation, Jesus issues a penetrating command. These commands further expose the exact nature of the self-deception involved.<\/li>\n<li>6. Each letter contains the general exhortation: “Anyone who is willing to hear should listen to the Spirit and understand what the Spirit is saying to the churches.” The words of the Spirit are the words of Christ (cf. 19:10).<\/li>\n<li>7. Finally, each letter contains a promise of reward to the victor. Each is eschatological and correlates with the last two chapters of the book. Furthermore, the promises are echoes of Genesis 2–3: what was lost by Adam in Eden is more than regained by Christ. We are probably to understand the seven promises as different facets that combine to make up one great promise to believers: wherever Christ is, there the “overcomers” will be.<\/li>\n<h5>The Seven-Sealed Scroll (4:1–8:1)<\/h5>\n<p>In view of the elaborate use of imagery and visions from 4:1 through the end of Revelation, and in view of the question of how this material relates to chapters 1–3, it is not surprising that commentators differ widely in their treatment of these chapters.<\/p>\n<h6>The Throne, the Scroll, and the Lamb (4:1–5:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapters 4–5 form one vision consisting of two parts: the throne (ch 4) and the Lamb and the scroll (ch 5). Actually, the throne vision (chs 4–5) and the breaking of all seven seals (chs 6–8) form a single, continuous vision and should not be separated; indeed, the throne vision should be viewed as dominating the entire vision of the seven-sealed scroll, and, for that matter, the rest of the book (cf. 22:3).<\/p>\n<p>A new view of God’s majesty and power is disclosed to John so that he can understand the events on earth that relate to the seven-sealed vision (4:1-11; cf. 1 Kgs 22:19). For the first time in Revelation, the reader is introduced to the frequent interchange between heaven and earth found in the remainder of the book. What happens on earth has its inseparable heavenly counterpart.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 5 is part of the vision that begins with chapter 4 and continues through the opening of the seven seals (Rv 6:1–8:1; cf. introduction to ch 4). The movement of the whole scene focuses on the slain Lamb as he takes the scroll from the hand of the one on the throne. The culminating emphasis is on the worthiness of the Lamb to receive worship because of his death.<\/p>\n<h6>Opening of the First Six Seals (6:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>The opening of the seals continues the vision begun in chapters 4 and 5. Now the scene shifts to events on earth. The scroll itself involves the rest of Revelation and has to do with the consummation of the mystery of all things, the goal or end of history for both the overcomers and the worshipers of the beast. The writer tentatively suggests that the seals represent events preparatory to the final consummation. Whether these events come immediately before the end or whether they represent general conditions that will prevail throughout the period preceding the end is a more difficult question.<\/p>\n<p>The seals closely parallel the signs of the approaching end times spoken of by Jesus in his Olivet discourse (Mt 24:1-35; Mk 13:1-37; Lk 21:5-33). This parallel to major parts of Revelation is too striking to be ignored. Thus the seals would correspond to the “beginning of birth pains” in the Olivet discourse. The events are similar to those occurring under the trumpets (Rv 8:2–11:19) and bowls (15:1–16:21) but should not be confused with those late and more severe judgments.<\/p>\n<h6>First Interlude: The 144,000 Israelites and the White-Robed Multitude (7:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>The change in tone from the subject matter in the sixth seal, as well as the delay until 8:1 in opening the seventh seal, indicate that chapter 7 is a true interlude. John first sees the angels, who will unleash destruction on the earth, restrained until the 144,000 servants of God from every tribe of Israel are sealed (vv 1-8). Then he sees an innumerable multitude clothed in white standing before the throne of God; these are identified as those who have come out of the great tribulation (vv 9-17).<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars separate the two groups into Jews and Gentiles at large, while others see the two groups as one group viewed from different perspectives.<\/p>\n<h6>The Opening of the Seventh Seal (8:1)<\/h6>\n<p>After the interlude (ch 7), the final seal is opened and silence for half an hour occurs in heaven to prepare for judgment on earth or to hear the cries of the martyrs on earth (cf. 6:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Six Trumpets (8:2–11:14)<\/h5>\n<p>After a preparatory scene in heaven (8:2-5), the six trumpets are blown in succession (8:6–9:19), followed again by an interlude (10:1–11:14).<\/p>\n<h6>The First Six Trumpets (8:6–9:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Opinion differs, but it may be best to see the first five seals as preceding the events of the trumpets and bowls. But the sixth seal enters into the period of the outpouring of God’s wrath that is enacted in the trumpet and bowl judgments (6:12-17). The trumpet judgments thus occur during the seventh seal, and the bowl judgments (16:1-21), during the seventh trumpet’s sounding. Therefore, there is some overlapping, but also sequence and advancement, between the seals, trumpets, and bowls.<\/p>\n<p>As in the seals, there is a discernible literary pattern in the unfolding of the trumpets. The first four trumpets are separated from the last three, which are called “woes” (8:13; 9:12; 11:14) and are generally reminiscent of the plagues in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>The last three trumpets are emphasized and are also called “woes” (8:13) because they are so severe. The first of these involves an unusual plague of locusts (9:1-11) and the second a plague of scorpionlike creatures (vv 13-19). Both of these plagues can best be seen as demonic hordes (cf. vv 1, 11).<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Interlude: The Little Book and the Two Witnesses (10:1–11:14)<\/h6>\n<p>The major point of chapter 10 seems to be a confirmation of John’s prophetic call, as verse 11 indicates: “You must prophesy again about many peoples, nations, languages and kings” (<span>niv<\/span>). More specifically, the contents of the little scroll (book) may include chapters 11, 12, and 13.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 11 is notoriously difficult. It includes a reference to measuring the temple, the altar, and the worshipers, and to the trampling down of the Holy City for 42 months (11:1-2), as well as the description of the two prophet-witnesses who are killed and raised to life (vv 3-13). Opinions vary considerably here; some see this vision as depicting the restored Jewish nation, with the actual prophets Moses and Elijah being revived. Others see the temple as the true church being protected by God during the tribulation and the two witnesses representing the whole faithful church under persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seventh Trumpet (11:15–14:20)<\/h5>\n<p>The seventh trumpet sounds, and in heaven loud voices proclaim the final triumph of God and Christ over the world. The theme is the kingdom of God and Christ—a dual kingdom, eternal in its duration. The image suggests the transference of the world empire once dominated by a usurping power, now taken by the hand of its true Owner and King. The announcement of the reign of the King is made here, but the final breaking of the enemies’ hold over the world does not occur until the return of Christ (19:11-21).<\/p>\n<h6>The Woman and the Dragon (12:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>In this chapter there are three main figures: the woman, the child, and the dragon. There are also three scenes: the birth of the child (vv 1-6), the expulsion of the dragon (vv 7-12), and the dragon’s attack on the woman and her children (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Since the context indicates that the woman under attack represents a continuous entity from the birth of Christ until at least John’s day or later, her identity in the author’s mind must be the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>The woman is in the throes of childbirth (v 2). The emphasis is on her pain and suffering, both physical and spiritual. The meaning of her anguish is that the faithful Christian community has been suffering as a prelude to the coming of the Messiah himself and of the new age (Is 26:17; 66:7-8; Mi 4:10; 5:3).<\/p>\n<h6>The Two Beasts (13:1-18)<\/h6>\n<p>Turning from the inner dynamics of the struggle (ch 12), chapter 13 shifts to the actual earthly instruments of this assault against God’s people—namely, the two dragon-energized beasts. The activities of the two beasts constitute the way the dragon carries out his final attempts to wage war on the offspring of the woman (12:17).<\/p>\n<p>The dragon and the first beast enter into a conspiracy to seduce the whole world into worshiping the beast. The conspirators summon a third figure to their aid—the beast from the earth, who must be sufficiently similar to the Lamb to entice even the followers of Jesus. As the battle progresses, the dragon’s deception becomes more and more subtle. Thus, the readers are called on to discern the criteria that will enable them to separate the lamblike beast from the Lamb himself (cf. 13:11 with 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>The Harvest of the Earth (14:1-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The two previous chapters have prepared Christians for the reality that, as the end draws near, they will be harassed and sacrificed like sheep. This section shows that their sacrifice is not meaningless. In chapter 7 the 144,000 were merely sealed; here, however, they are seen as already delivered. When the floods have passed, Mt Zion appears high above the waters; the Lamb is on the throne of glory, surrounded by the triumphant songs of his own; the gracious presence of God fills the universe.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 briefly answers two pressing questions: What becomes of those who refuse to receive the mark of the beast and are killed (vv 1-5)? What happens to the beast and his servants (vv 6-20)?<\/p>\n<h5>The Seven Bowls (15:1–19:10)<\/h5>\n<p>The series of bowl judgments constitutes the “third woe,” announced in 11:14 as “coming soon” (see comments on 11:14). These last plagues take place “immediately after the distress of those days” referred to by Jesus in the Olivet discourse and may well be the fulfillment of his apocalyptic words: “The sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken” (Mt 24:29, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Preparation: The Seven Angels with the Seven Last plagues (15:1-8)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapter 15 is related to the OT account of the exodus and is strongly suggestive of the liturgical tradition of the ancient synagogue. The chapter has two main visions: the first portrays the victors who have emerged triumphant from the great ordeal (vv 2-4); the second relates the emergence from the heavenly temple of the seven angels clothed in white and gold who hold the seven bowls of the last plagues (vv 5-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Pouring Out of the Bowl Judgments (16:1-21)<\/h6>\n<p>These occur in rapid succession with only a brief pause for a dialogue between the third angel and the altar, accentuating the justice of God’s punishments (vv 5-7). This rapid succession is probably due to John’s desire to give a telescopic view of the first six bowls and to hasten then on to the seventh, where the far more interesting judgment on Babylon occurs, concerning which the author will give a detailed account. The final three plagues are social and spiritual in their effect and shift from nature to humanity.<\/p>\n<h6>The Prostitute and the Beast (17:1-18)<\/h6>\n<p>To a majority of modern interpreters, Babylon represents the city of Rome. The beast stands for the Roman Empire as a whole, including its provinces and peoples. However, it is not sufficient simply to identify Babylon with Rome. For that matter, Babylon cannot be confined to any one historical manifestation, past or future; it has multiple equivalents (cf. 11:8). Babylon is found wherever there is satanic deception. Babylon is better understood here as the archetypal head of all entrenched worldly resistance to God. Babylon is a transhistorical reality that includes idolatrous kingdoms as diverse as Sodom, Egypt, Babylon, Tyre, Nineveh, and Rome. Babylon is an eschatological symbol of satanic deception and power; it is a divine mystery that can never be wholly reducible to empirical earthly institutions. Babylon represents the total culture of the world apart from God, while the divine system is depicted by the New Jerusalem. Rome is simply one manifestation of the total system.<\/p>\n<h6>The Fall of Babylon the Great (18:1-24)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapter 18 contains the description of the previously announced judgment on the prostitute (17:1). Under the imagery of the destruction of a great commercial city, John describes the final overthrow of the great prostitute, Babylon.<\/p>\n<h6>Thanksgiving for the Destruction of Babylon (19:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>In stark contrast to the laments of Babylon’s consorts, the heavenly choirs burst forth in a great liturgy of celebration to God.<\/p>\n<h6>The Marriage of the Lamb (19:6-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Finally, the cycle of praise is completed with the reverberating sounds of another great multitude (v 6): the redeemed throng (cf. 7:9). They utter the final Hallel in words reminiscent of the great royal psalms (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vision of the Return of Christ and the Consummation of the Age (19:11–20:15)<\/h5>\n<h6>The First and Second Last Things: The Rider on the White Horse and the Destruction of the Beast (19:11-21)<\/h6>\n<p>This vision, which depicts the return of Christ and the final overthrow of the beast, may be viewed as the climax of the previous section (vv 1-10) or as the first of a final series of seven last things—namely, the return of Christ; the defeat of the beast; the binding of Satan; the Millennium; the release and final end of Satan; the last judgment; and the new heaven, the new earth, and the new Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Although Satan has been dealt a death blow at the cross (cf. Jn 12:31; 16:11), he nevertheless continues to promulgate evil and deception during this present age (cf. Eph 2:2; 1 Thes 3:5; 1 Pt 5:8-9; Rv 2:10). Yet he is a deposed ruler who is now under the sovereign authority of Christ. Satan is allowed to continue his evil for a short time until God’s purposes are finished. In this scene of the overthrow of the beast, his kings, and their armies, John shows us the ultimate and swift destruction of these evil powers by the King of kings and Lord of lords. They have met their Master in this final and utterly real confrontation (Rv 19:17-21).<\/p>\n<h6>The Third and Fourth Last Things: The Binding of Satan and the Millennium (20:1-6)<\/h6>\n<p>The Millennium has been called one of the most controversial and intriguing questions of eschatology. The main problem is whether the reference to a Millennium (thousand years) indicates an earthly historical reign of peace that will manifest itself at the close of this present age, or whether the whole passage is symbolic of some present experience of Christians or some future nonhistorical reality. The former view is called premillennial (i.e., Christ’s second coming precedes the Millennium), the latter is amillennial (i.e., there is no literal Millenium).<\/p>\n<p>The binding of Satan removes his deceptive activities from the earth (vv 1-3) during the time the martyred saints are resurrected and rule with Christ (vv 4-6).<\/p>\n<h6>The Fifth Last Thing: The Release and Final End of Satan (20:7-10)<\/h6>\n<p>In Ezekiel 38–39, “Gog” refers to the prince of a host of pagan invaders from the North, especially the Scythian hordes from the distant land of Magog. In Revelation, however, the names are symbolic of the final enemies of Christ duped by Satan into attacking the community of the saints.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sixth Last Thing: The Great White Throne Judgment (20:11-15)<\/h6>\n<p>The language of poetic imagery captures the fading character of everything that is of the world (1 Jn 2:15-17). Now the only reality is God seated on the throne of judgment, before whom all must appear (Heb 9:27). His verdict is holy and righteous (expressed symbolically by the white throne). This vision declares that even though it may have seemed that the course of earth’s history ran contrary to his holy will, no single day or hour in the world’s drama has ever detracted from the absolute sovereignty of God.<\/p>\n<h6>The Seventh Last Thing: The New Heaven and the New Earth and the New Jerusalem (21:1–22:5)<\/h6>\n<p>John here discloses a theology in stone, gold as pure as glass, and color. Archetypal images abound. The church is called the bride (21:2). God gives the thirsty “the springs of the water of life without charge!” (v 6). Completeness is implied in the number 12 and its multiples (vv 12-14, 16-17, 21), and fullness in the cubical shape of the city (v 16). Colorful jewels abound, as do references to light and the glory of God (21:11, 18-21, 23-25; 22:5). There is the “river of the water of life” (22:1) and the “tree of life” (v 2). The “sea” is gone (21:1).<\/p>\n<p>Allusions to the OT abound. Most of John’s imagery in this chapter reflects Isaiah 60 and 65 and Ezekiel 40–48. John weaves Isaiah’s vision of the new Jerusalem together with Ezekiel’s vision of the new temple. The multiple OT promises converging in John’s mind seem to indicate that he viewed the new Jerusalem as the fulfillment of all these strands of prophecy. There are also allusions to Genesis 1–3: the absence of death and suffering, the dwelling of God with his people as in Eden, the tree of life, the removal of the curse. Creation is restored to its pristine character.<\/p>\n<p>The connection of this vision with the promises to the overcomers in the letters to the seven churches (Rv 2–3) is significant. For example, to the overcomers at Ephesus was granted the right to the tree of life (2:7; cf. 22:2); at Thyatira, the right to rule the nations (2:26; cf. 22:5); at Philadelphia, the name of the city of God, the new Jerusalem (3:12; cf. 21:2, 9-27). In a sense, a strand from every major section of the Apocalypse appears in chapters 21–22.<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Conclusion (22:6-21)<\/h5>\n<p>With consummate artistry, the words of the introduction (1:1-8) are sounded again in the conclusion: the book ends with the voices of the angel, Jesus, the Spirit, the bride, and finally John: “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus” (22:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apocalyptic; Daniel, Book of; Eschatology; John, the Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REVELATION, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last book of the Bible, containing revelations concerning the events of the last days.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Methods of Interpreting Revelation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The earliest witnesses ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, the son of Zebedee. Dionysius, the distinguished bishop of Alexandria and student of Origen (early third century), was the first within the church to question its apostolic authorship because it seemed to him that the writing style differed greatly from that found in the fourth Gospel, attributed to John. From the time of Dionysius, the apostolic origin of the book was disputed in the East until Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 350) turned the tide toward its acceptance. In the West, the book was widely accepted and was included in all the principal lists of canonical books from at least the middle of the second century on.<\/p>\n<p>From the internal evidence, the following things can be said about the author with some confidence. He calls himself John (Rv 1:4, 9; 22:8). This is most likely not a pseudonym but rather the name of a person well known among the Asian churches. This John identifies himself as a prophet (1:3; 22:6-10, 18-19) who was in exile because of his prophetic witness (1:9). As such, he speaks to the churches with great authority. His use of the OT and Targums makes it virtually certain that he was a Palestinian Jew, steeped in the ritual of the temple and synagogue. John the apostle fits this profile. The difference between the style of the fourth Gospel and that of Revelation can be explained by the radically different genres of the two books. The Gospel is a composed historical narrative, whereas the book of Revelation is a record of visionary experiences and direct divine revelation. The writer of the Gospel could take his time in crafting a narrative word by word and sentence by sentence. The writer of Revelation was compelled by God to write down immediately whatever he was told or was shown. Thus, the apostle John could easily have been the writer of both. In any event, no convincing argument has been advanced against his authorship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>Only two dates for Revelation have received serious support. An early date, shortly after the reign of Nero (<span>AD<\/span> 54–68), is allegedly supported by references in the book to the persecution of Christians, to the <em>Nero redivivus<\/em> myth (a revived Nero would be the reincarnation of the evil genius of the whole Roman Empire), to the imperial cult (ch 13), and to the temple (ch 11), which was destroyed in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The alternate date rests primarily on the early witness of Irenaeus, who stated that the apostle John “saw the revelation . . . at the close of Domitian’s reign” (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96).<\/p>\n<p>The origin of the book is clearly identified with Patmos, one of the Sporades Islands, located about 37 miles (59.5 kilometers) southwest of Miletus, in the Icarian Sea (1:9). John was apparently exiled on the island due to religious and\/or government persecutions arising from his witness to Jesus (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the recipients are clearly the seven historic churches in the Roman province of Asia (modern western Turkey): Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea (1:4, 11; 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation differs from the other NT writings, not in doctrine but in literary genre and subject matter. It is a book of prophecy (1:3; 22:7, 18-19) that contains both warning and consolation—announcements of future judgment and blessing— communicated by means of symbols and visions.<\/p>\n<p>The language and imagery were not as strange to first-century readers as they are today. Therefore, familiarity with the prophetic books of the OT, especially Daniel and Ezekiel, will help the reader grasp the message of the Apocalypse.<\/p>\n<p>While the symbolic and visionary mode of presentation creates ambiguity and frustration for many, it actually lends to the description of unseen realities a poignancy and clarity unattainable by any other method. Such language can trigger a variety of ideas, associations, existential involvement, and mystical responses that the straight prose found in most of the NT cannot achieve.<\/p>\n<p>The letters to the churches indicate that five of the seven were in serious trouble. The major problem seemed to be disloyalty to Christ; this may indicate that the major thrust of Revelation is not sociopolitical but theological. John was more concerned with countering the heresy that was creeping into the churches toward the close of the first century than with addressing the political situation. This heresy seems to have been a type of Gnostic teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation is also commonly viewed as belonging to the group of writings known as apocalyptic literature. The name for this type of literature is derived from the Greek word for “revelation”: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">apokalupsis<\/span><em>.<\/em> The extrabiblical apocalyptic books were written in the period from 200 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 200. Although numerous similarities exist, there are also some clear differences.<\/p>\n<p>Much more important than the Jewish apocalyptic sources is the debt John owes to the eschatological teaching of Jesus, such as the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). Revelation is unique in its use of the OT. Of the 404 verses of the Apocalypse, 278 contain references to the Jewish Scriptures. John refers frequently to Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, and also repeatedly to Exodus, Deuteronomy, and the Psalms. However, he rarely quotes the OT directly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MethodsofInterpretingRevelation\">Methods of Interpreting Revelation<\/p>\n<p>Four traditional ways of understanding Revelation 4–22 have emerged in the history of the church:<\/p>\n<h5>Futurist<\/h5>\n<p>This view holds that, with the exception of chapters 1–3, all the visions in Revelation relate to a period immediately preceding and following the second advent of Christ at the end of the age. The beasts (chs 13, 17) are identified with the future Antichrist, who will appear at the last moment in world history and will be defeated by Christ in his second coming to judge the world and to establish his earthly millennial kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Variations of this view were held by the earliest expositors, such as Justin Martyr (d. 164), Irenaeus (d. c. 195), Hippolytus (d. 236), and Victorinus (d. c. 303). This futurist approach has enjoyed a revival since the 19th century and is widely held among evangelicals today.<\/p>\n<h5>Historicist<\/h5>\n<p>As the word implies, this view sees in Revelation a prophetic survey of history. It originated with Joachim of Floris (d. 1202), a monastic who claimed to have received a special vision that revealed to him God’s plan for the ages. He assigned a day-year value to the 1,260 days of Revelation. In his scheme, the book is a prophecy of the events of Western history from the time of the apostles until Joachim’s own time. In the various schemes that developed as this method was applied to history, one element became common: the Antichrist and Babylon were connected with Rome and the papacy. Later, Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers came to adopt this view.<\/p>\n<h5>Preterist<\/h5>\n<p>According to this view, Revelation deals with the time of its author; the main contents of chapters are thus viewed as describing events wholly limited to John’s own day. The beasts (ch 13) are identified as imperial Rome and the imperial priesthood. This is the view held by many contemporary scholars.<\/p>\n<h5>Idealist<\/h5>\n<p>This method of interpreting Revelation sees it as being basically poetic, symbolic, and spiritual in nature. Thus Revelation does not predict any specific historical events at all; on the contrary, it sets forth timeless truths concerning the battle between good and evil that continues throughout the church age. As a system of interpretation, it is more recent than the other three schools.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>NT scholar H. B. Swete wrote of Revelation: “In form it is an epistle, containing an apocalyptic prophecy; in spirit and inner purpose, it is a pastoral.” As a prophet, John was called to separate true from false belief—to expose the failures of the congregations in Asia. He desired to encourage authentic Christian discipleship by explaining Christian suffering and martyrdom in light of the victory over evil won by Jesus’ death and resurrection. John was concerned to show that the martyrs (e.g., Antipas, 2:13) will be vindicated. He disclosed the end both of evil and of those who follow the Beast (19:20-21; 20:10, 15), and he described the ultimate victory of the Lamb and of those who follow him.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The main contents of Revelation are arranged in series of seven items, some explicit, some implied: seven churches (chs 2–3), seven seals (chs 6–7), seven trumpets (chs 8–11), seven bowls (chs 16–18), seven last things (chs 19–22). It is also possible to divide the contents around four key visions: (1) the vision of the Son of Man among the seven churches (chs 1–3); (2) the vision of the seven-sealed scroll, the seven trumpets, and the seven bowls (4:1–19:10); (3) the vision of the return of Christ and the consummation of this age (19:11–20:15); and (4) the vision of the new heaven and new earth (chs 21–22).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Introduction (1:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>The first three chapters of Revelation form a unit and are comparatively easy to understand. They are the most familiar and contain an introduction to the whole book (1:1-8); the first vision, of the Son of Man among the seven lampstands (1:9-20); and the letters or messages to the seven churches in Asia (2:1–3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The first eight verses introduce the whole book. They are freighted with theological content and detail. After a brief preface (1:1-3), John addresses the book to the seven churches of Asia in an expanded ancient letter form (vv 4-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Son of Man among the Lampstands (1:9-20)<\/h5>\n<p>After a brief indication of the historical situation that occasioned it (1:9-11), John describes his vision of “someone, like a son of man,” walking among seven golden lampstands (vv 12-16). The person identifies himself as the exalted Lord, Jesus Christ (vv 17-18), and then explains the meaning of the symbolic vision (vv 19-20). Finally, the Lord addresses a rather detailed and specific message to each of the seven churches in Asia (2:1–3:22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Letters to the Seven Churches (2:1–3:22)<\/h5>\n<p>These seven churches contained typical or representative qualities of both obedience and disobedience that are a constant reminder to all churches throughout every age (cf. 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; esp. 2:23). Their order (1:11; 2:1–3:22) reflects the natural ancient travel circuit beginning at Ephesus and arriving finally at Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>Each message generally follows a common literary plan consisting of seven parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The addressee is given first, following a common pattern in all seven letters: “To the angel of the church in Ephesus, write. . . .”<\/p>\n<li>2. Then the speaker is mentioned. In each case, some part of the great vision of Christ and of his self-identification (1:12-20) is repeated as the speaker identifies himself; for example, “This is the message from the one who holds the seven stars in his right hand, the one who walks among the seven gold lampstands” (2:1; cf. 1:13, 16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Next, the knowledge of the speaker is given. He intimately knows the works of the churches and the reality of their loyalty to him, despite outward appearances. In two cases (Sardis and Laodicea) the assessment proves totally negative. The enemy of Christ’s churches is the deceiver, Satan, who seeks to undermine the churches’ loyalty to Christ (2:10, 24).<\/li>\n<li>4. Following his assessment of the churches’ accomplishments, the speaker pronounces his verdict on their condition in such words as “You do not love me as you did at first” (2:4) or “You are dead” (3:1). Two letters contain no unfavorable verdict (Smyrna, Philadelphia) and two no word of commendation (Sardis, Laodicea). In the letters, all derelictions are viewed as forms of inner betrayals of a prior relation to Christ.<\/li>\n<li>5. To correct or alert each congregation, Jesus issues a penetrating command. These commands further expose the exact nature of the self-deception involved.<\/li>\n<li>6. Each letter contains the general exhortation: “Anyone who is willing to hear should listen to the Spirit and understand what the Spirit is saying to the churches.” The words of the Spirit are the words of Christ (cf. 19:10).<\/li>\n<li>7. Finally, each letter contains a promise of reward to the victor. Each is eschatological and correlates with the last two chapters of the book. Furthermore, the promises are echoes of Genesis 2–3: what was lost by Adam in Eden is more than regained by Christ. We are probably to understand the seven promises as different facets that combine to make up one great promise to believers: wherever Christ is, there the “overcomers” will be.<\/li>\n<h5>The Seven-Sealed Scroll (4:1–8:1)<\/h5>\n<p>In view of the elaborate use of imagery and visions from 4:1 through the end of Revelation, and in view of the question of how this material relates to chapters 1–3, it is not surprising that commentators differ widely in their treatment of these chapters.<\/p>\n<h6>The Throne, the Scroll, and the Lamb (4:1–5:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapters 4–5 form one vision consisting of two parts: the throne (ch 4) and the Lamb and the scroll (ch 5). Actually, the throne vision (chs 4–5) and the breaking of all seven seals (chs 6–8) form a single, continuous vision and should not be separated; indeed, the throne vision should be viewed as dominating the entire vision of the seven-sealed scroll, and, for that matter, the rest of the book (cf. 22:3).<\/p>\n<p>A new view of God’s majesty and power is disclosed to John so that he can understand the events on earth that relate to the seven-sealed vision (4:1-11; cf. 1 Kgs 22:19). For the first time in Revelation, the reader is introduced to the frequent interchange between heaven and earth found in the remainder of the book. What happens on earth has its inseparable heavenly counterpart.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 5 is part of the vision that begins with chapter 4 and continues through the opening of the seven seals (Rv 6:1–8:1; cf. introduction to ch 4). The movement of the whole scene focuses on the slain Lamb as he takes the scroll from the hand of the one on the throne. The culminating emphasis is on the worthiness of the Lamb to receive worship because of his death.<\/p>\n<h6>Opening of the First Six Seals (6:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>The opening of the seals continues the vision begun in chapters 4 and 5. Now the scene shifts to events on earth. The scroll itself involves the rest of Revelation and has to do with the consummation of the mystery of all things, the goal or end of history for both the overcomers and the worshipers of the beast. The writer tentatively suggests that the seals represent events preparatory to the final consummation. Whether these events come immediately before the end or whether they represent general conditions that will prevail throughout the period preceding the end is a more difficult question.<\/p>\n<p>The seals closely parallel the signs of the approaching end times spoken of by Jesus in his Olivet discourse (Mt 24:1-35; Mk 13:1-37; Lk 21:5-33). This parallel to major parts of Revelation is too striking to be ignored. Thus the seals would correspond to the “beginning of birth pains” in the Olivet discourse. The events are similar to those occurring under the trumpets (Rv 8:2–11:19) and bowls (15:1–16:21) but should not be confused with those late and more severe judgments.<\/p>\n<h6>First Interlude: The 144,000 Israelites and the White-Robed Multitude (7:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>The change in tone from the subject matter in the sixth seal, as well as the delay until 8:1 in opening the seventh seal, indicate that chapter 7 is a true interlude. John first sees the angels, who will unleash destruction on the earth, restrained until the 144,000 servants of God from every tribe of Israel are sealed (vv 1-8). Then he sees an innumerable multitude clothed in white standing before the throne of God; these are identified as those who have come out of the great tribulation (vv 9-17).<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars separate the two groups into Jews and Gentiles at large, while others see the two groups as one group viewed from different perspectives.<\/p>\n<h6>The Opening of the Seventh Seal (8:1)<\/h6>\n<p>After the interlude (ch 7), the final seal is opened and silence for half an hour occurs in heaven to prepare for judgment on earth or to hear the cries of the martyrs on earth (cf. 6:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Six Trumpets (8:2–11:14)<\/h5>\n<p>After a preparatory scene in heaven (8:2-5), the six trumpets are blown in succession (8:6–9:19), followed again by an interlude (10:1–11:14).<\/p>\n<h6>The First Six Trumpets (8:6–9:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Opinion differs, but it may be best to see the first five seals as preceding the events of the trumpets and bowls. But the sixth seal enters into the period of the outpouring of God’s wrath that is enacted in the trumpet and bowl judgments (6:12-17). The trumpet judgments thus occur during the seventh seal, and the bowl judgments (16:1-21), during the seventh trumpet’s sounding. Therefore, there is some overlapping, but also sequence and advancement, between the seals, trumpets, and bowls.<\/p>\n<p>As in the seals, there is a discernible literary pattern in the unfolding of the trumpets. The first four trumpets are separated from the last three, which are called “woes” (8:13; 9:12; 11:14) and are generally reminiscent of the plagues in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>The last three trumpets are emphasized and are also called “woes” (8:13) because they are so severe. The first of these involves an unusual plague of locusts (9:1-11) and the second a plague of scorpionlike creatures (vv 13-19). Both of these plagues can best be seen as demonic hordes (cf. vv 1, 11).<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Interlude: The Little Book and the Two Witnesses (10:1–11:14)<\/h6>\n<p>The major point of chapter 10 seems to be a confirmation of John’s prophetic call, as verse 11 indicates: “You must prophesy again about many peoples, nations, languages and kings” (<span>niv<\/span>). More specifically, the contents of the little scroll (book) may include chapters 11, 12, and 13.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 11 is notoriously difficult. It includes a reference to measuring the temple, the altar, and the worshipers, and to the trampling down of the Holy City for 42 months (11:1-2), as well as the description of the two prophet-witnesses who are killed and raised to life (vv 3-13). Opinions vary considerably here; some see this vision as depicting the restored Jewish nation, with the actual prophets Moses and Elijah being revived. Others see the temple as the true church being protected by God during the tribulation and the two witnesses representing the whole faithful church under persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seventh Trumpet (11:15–14:20)<\/h5>\n<p>The seventh trumpet sounds, and in heaven loud voices proclaim the final triumph of God and Christ over the world. The theme is the kingdom of God and Christ—a dual kingdom, eternal in its duration. The image suggests the transference of the world empire once dominated by a usurping power, now taken by the hand of its true Owner and King. The announcement of the reign of the King is made here, but the final breaking of the enemies’ hold over the world does not occur until the return of Christ (19:11-21).<\/p>\n<h6>The Woman and the Dragon (12:1-17)<\/h6>\n<p>In this chapter there are three main figures: the woman, the child, and the dragon. There are also three scenes: the birth of the child (vv 1-6), the expulsion of the dragon (vv 7-12), and the dragon’s attack on the woman and her children (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Since the context indicates that the woman under attack represents a continuous entity from the birth of Christ until at least John’s day or later, her identity in the author’s mind must be the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>The woman is in the throes of childbirth (v 2). The emphasis is on her pain and suffering, both physical and spiritual. The meaning of her anguish is that the faithful Christian community has been suffering as a prelude to the coming of the Messiah himself and of the new age (Is 26:17; 66:7-8; Mi 4:10; 5:3).<\/p>\n<h6>The Two Beasts (13:1-18)<\/h6>\n<p>Turning from the inner dynamics of the struggle (ch 12), chapter 13 shifts to the actual earthly instruments of this assault against God’s people—namely, the two dragon-energized beasts. The activities of the two beasts constitute the way the dragon carries out his final attempts to wage war on the offspring of the woman (12:17).<\/p>\n<p>The dragon and the first beast enter into a conspiracy to seduce the whole world into worshiping the beast. The conspirators summon a third figure to their aid—the beast from the earth, who must be sufficiently similar to the Lamb to entice even the followers of Jesus. As the battle progresses, the dragon’s deception becomes more and more subtle. Thus, the readers are called on to discern the criteria that will enable them to separate the lamblike beast from the Lamb himself (cf. 13:11 with 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>The Harvest of the Earth (14:1-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The two previous chapters have prepared Christians for the reality that, as the end draws near, they will be harassed and sacrificed like sheep. This section shows that their sacrifice is not meaningless. In chapter 7 the 144,000 were merely sealed; here, however, they are seen as already delivered. When the floods have passed, Mt Zion appears high above the waters; the Lamb is on the throne of glory, surrounded by the triumphant songs of his own; the gracious presence of God fills the universe.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 briefly answers two pressing questions: What becomes of those who refuse to receive the mark of the beast and are killed (vv 1-5)? What happens to the beast and his servants (vv 6-20)?<\/p>\n<h5>The Seven Bowls (15:1–19:10)<\/h5>\n<p>The series of bowl judgments constitutes the “third woe,” announced in 11:14 as “coming soon” (see comments on 11:14). These last plagues take place “immediately after the distress of those days” referred to by Jesus in the Olivet discourse and may well be the fulfillment of his apocalyptic words: “The sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken” (Mt 24:29, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Preparation: The Seven Angels with the Seven Last plagues (15:1-8)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapter 15 is related to the OT account of the exodus and is strongly suggestive of the liturgical tradition of the ancient synagogue. The chapter has two main visions: the first portrays the victors who have emerged triumphant from the great ordeal (vv 2-4); the second relates the emergence from the heavenly temple of the seven angels clothed in white and gold who hold the seven bowls of the last plagues (vv 5-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Pouring Out of the Bowl Judgments (16:1-21)<\/h6>\n<p>These occur in rapid succession with only a brief pause for a dialogue between the third angel and the altar, accentuating the justice of God’s punishments (vv 5-7). This rapid succession is probably due to John’s desire to give a telescopic view of the first six bowls and to hasten then on to the seventh, where the far more interesting judgment on Babylon occurs, concerning which the author will give a detailed account. The final three plagues are social and spiritual in their effect and shift from nature to humanity.<\/p>\n<h6>The Prostitute and the Beast (17:1-18)<\/h6>\n<p>To a majority of modern interpreters, Babylon represents the city of Rome. The beast stands for the Roman Empire as a whole, including its provinces and peoples. However, it is not sufficient simply to identify Babylon with Rome. For that matter, Babylon cannot be confined to any one historical manifestation, past or future; it has multiple equivalents (cf. 11:8). Babylon is found wherever there is satanic deception. Babylon is better understood here as the archetypal head of all entrenched worldly resistance to God. Babylon is a transhistorical reality that includes idolatrous kingdoms as diverse as Sodom, Egypt, Babylon, Tyre, Nineveh, and Rome. Babylon is an eschatological symbol of satanic deception and power; it is a divine mystery that can never be wholly reducible to empirical earthly institutions. Babylon represents the total culture of the world apart from God, while the divine system is depicted by the New Jerusalem. Rome is simply one manifestation of the total system.<\/p>\n<h6>The Fall of Babylon the Great (18:1-24)<\/h6>\n<p>Chapter 18 contains the description of the previously announced judgment on the prostitute (17:1). Under the imagery of the destruction of a great commercial city, John describes the final overthrow of the great prostitute, Babylon.<\/p>\n<h6>Thanksgiving for the Destruction of Babylon (19:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>In stark contrast to the laments of Babylon’s consorts, the heavenly choirs burst forth in a great liturgy of celebration to God.<\/p>\n<h6>The Marriage of the Lamb (19:6-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Finally, the cycle of praise is completed with the reverberating sounds of another great multitude (v 6): the redeemed throng (cf. 7:9). They utter the final Hallel in words reminiscent of the great royal psalms (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vision of the Return of Christ and the Consummation of the Age (19:11–20:15)<\/h5>\n<h6>The First and Second Last Things: The Rider on the White Horse and the Destruction of the Beast (19:11-21)<\/h6>\n<p>This vision, which depicts the return of Christ and the final overthrow of the beast, may be viewed as the climax of the previous section (vv 1-10) or as the first of a final series of seven last things—namely, the return of Christ; the defeat of the beast; the binding of Satan; the Millennium; the release and final end of Satan; the last judgment; and the new heaven, the new earth, and the new Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Although Satan has been dealt a death blow at the cross (cf. Jn 12:31; 16:11), he nevertheless continues to promulgate evil and deception during this present age (cf. Eph 2:2; 1 Thes 3:5; 1 Pt 5:8-9; Rv 2:10). Yet he is a deposed ruler who is now under the sovereign authority of Christ. Satan is allowed to continue his evil for a short time until God’s purposes are finished. In this scene of the overthrow of the beast, his kings, and their armies, John shows us the ultimate and swift destruction of these evil powers by the King of kings and Lord of lords. They have met their Master in this final and utterly real confrontation (Rv 19:17-21).<\/p>\n<h6>The Third and Fourth Last Things: The Binding of Satan and the Millennium (20:1-6)<\/h6>\n<p>The Millennium has been called one of the most controversial and intriguing questions of eschatology. The main problem is whether the reference to a Millennium (thousand years) indicates an earthly historical reign of peace that will manifest itself at the close of this present age, or whether the whole passage is symbolic of some present experience of Christians or some future nonhistorical reality. The former view is called premillennial (i.e., Christ’s second coming precedes the Millennium), the latter is amillennial (i.e., there is no literal Millenium).<\/p>\n<p>The binding of Satan removes his deceptive activities from the earth (vv 1-3) during the time the martyred saints are resurrected and rule with Christ (vv 4-6).<\/p>\n<h6>The Fifth Last Thing: The Release and Final End of Satan (20:7-10)<\/h6>\n<p>In Ezekiel 38–39, “Gog” refers to the prince of a host of pagan invaders from the North, especially the Scythian hordes from the distant land of Magog. In Revelation, however, the names are symbolic of the final enemies of Christ duped by Satan into attacking the community of the saints.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sixth Last Thing: The Great White Throne Judgment (20:11-15)<\/h6>\n<p>The language of poetic imagery captures the fading character of everything that is of the world (1 Jn 2:15-17). Now the only reality is God seated on the throne of judgment, before whom all must appear (Heb 9:27). His verdict is holy and righteous (expressed symbolically by the white throne). This vision declares that even though it may have seemed that the course of earth’s history ran contrary to his holy will, no single day or hour in the world’s drama has ever detracted from the absolute sovereignty of God.<\/p>\n<h6>The Seventh Last Thing: The New Heaven and the New Earth and the New Jerusalem (21:1–22:5)<\/h6>\n<p>John here discloses a theology in stone, gold as pure as glass, and color. Archetypal images abound. The church is called the bride (21:2). God gives the thirsty “the springs of the water of life without charge!” (v 6). Completeness is implied in the number 12 and its multiples (vv 12-14, 16-17, 21), and fullness in the cubical shape of the city (v 16). Colorful jewels abound, as do references to light and the glory of God (21:11, 18-21, 23-25; 22:5). There is the “river of the water of life” (22:1) and the “tree of life” (v 2). The “sea” is gone (21:1).<\/p>\n<p>Allusions to the OT abound. Most of John’s imagery in this chapter reflects Isaiah 60 and 65 and Ezekiel 40–48. John weaves Isaiah’s vision of the new Jerusalem together with Ezekiel’s vision of the new temple. The multiple OT promises converging in John’s mind seem to indicate that he viewed the new Jerusalem as the fulfillment of all these strands of prophecy. There are also allusions to Genesis 1–3: the absence of death and suffering, the dwelling of God with his people as in Eden, the tree of life, the removal of the curse. Creation is restored to its pristine character.<\/p>\n<p>The connection of this vision with the promises to the overcomers in the letters to the seven churches (Rv 2–3) is significant. For example, to the overcomers at Ephesus was granted the right to the tree of life (2:7; cf. 22:2); at Thyatira, the right to rule the nations (2:26; cf. 22:5); at Philadelphia, the name of the city of God, the new Jerusalem (3:12; cf. 21:2, 9-27). In a sense, a strand from every major section of the Apocalypse appears in chapters 21–22.<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Conclusion (22:6-21)<\/h5>\n<p>With consummate artistry, the words of the introduction (1:1-8) are sounded again in the conclusion: the book ends with the voices of the angel, Jesus, the Spirit, the bride, and finally John: “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus” (22:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apocalyptic; Daniel, Book of; Eschatology; John, the Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REVELATION, Book of Last book of the Bible, containing revelations concerning the events of the last days. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background • Methods of Interpreting Revelation • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The earliest witnesses ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, the son of Zebedee. Dionysius, the distinguished bishop of Alexandria and student of Origen (early third century), was the first within the church to question its apostolic a...","summary_en":"REVELATION, Book of Last book of the Bible, containing revelations concerning the events of the last days. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background • Methods of Interpreting Revelation • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The earliest witnesses ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, the son of Zebedee. Dionysius, the distinguished bishop of Alexandria and student of Origen (early third century), was the first within the church to question its apostolic a...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38683,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"World","title_en":"World","content_ro":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","summary_en":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56673,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:11","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","summary_en":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84299,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:11","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","summary_en":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:11","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","summary_en":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139551,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:11","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Judgment<\/em> of sinners had already begun, for the <em>ruler of this world<\/em><em>,<\/em> Satan, had <em>already been judged<\/em> (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","summary_en":"16:11 Judgment of sinners had already begun, for the ruler of this world, Satan, had already been judged (see 12:31). The world thought it was judging Jesus, but the opposite occurred.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":9650,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Disciple","title_en":"Disciple","content_ro":"<h3>DISCIPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels the immediate followers of Jesus, called by his authority from a wide variety of circumstances, not only the Twelve but all those who were sympathetic to his teaching and committed to him, are called “disciples.” The calling of these disciples took place at a time when other teachers had their disciples, most notably the Pharisees (Mk 2:18; Lk 5:33) and John the Baptist (Mt 9:14). It is evident from the practice of John the Baptist that different leaders called for different disciplines from their followers. John’s way was considerably more ascetic in character than that of Jesus; however, it too involved not only teaching regarding conduct and manner of life, but also a distinctive pattern of praying (Lk 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>The disciples of Jesus had a unique experience. Not only did they benefit from the immediate teaching of Jesus, his looks and tones of voice (Mk 10:21) as well as his words, but they were also witnesses of the unfolding drama of redemption that had Christ as its center. They followed a teacher who embodied the substance of that teaching. The first disciples could be taught by Christ only little by little, not only because of the need to remove their misconceptions (Mt 16:21), but also because the full significance of what Jesus said and did could not be most fully appreciated until after the events of his death and resurrection (Mt 28:9). It is not surprising that the period of “discipling” covered the time before and after Christ’s death and resurrection, and also after Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit taught the disciples about matters that they could not “bear” while Jesus remained on earth (Jn 16:12).<\/p>\n<p>Groups of Jesus’ first disciples, both the Twelve and the Seventy (Mt 26:20: Lk 10:1), received his teaching, taught others in turn (Lk 10:1-11), and were given power to heal (Mt 10:1). They were also to proclaim the message of salvation through Christ. Yet the Twelve were given special prominence, and with the exception of Judas Iscariot (whose place was taken by Matthias, Acts 1:26), they became the foundation teachers of the newly emerging Christian church. Their authority in the church, given by Christ (Mt 16:19; 28:16-20), was to be characterized by a unique style of self-giving service (Lk 22:24-30). To this group of disciples, who came to be known as the apostles (though this term is occasionally given to a wider application), Saul of Tarsus was added. At his conversion on the road to Damascus, he saw the risen Lord and was immediately commissioned by Christ (Gal 1:12, 16) as the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of his ascension Christ commissioned the first disciples to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19); hence, the term “disciple” is also used in the book of Acts to describe believers, those who confess Christ. Though they have not been directly called by Christ himself, such disciples are called by Christ’s Spirit through the message delivered by the first disciples; disciples called later are not in any sense inferior to the first disciples, even though they are less privileged. It was proper for early Christians to be called disciples of Jesus of Nazareth or simply “the disciples” (Acts 6:1-2, 7; 9:36; 11:26) because they were carrying on the teaching of Jesus and living the life he had exemplified. They were thus recognized as a “school” or living community that embodied the teaching of their “master” in practice. The book of 1 John emphasizes that only those who keep Christ’s commandments show real love for God (1 Jn 2:3-6; 3:10-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DISCIPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels the immediate followers of Jesus, called by his authority from a wide variety of circumstances, not only the Twelve but all those who were sympathetic to his teaching and committed to him, are called “disciples.” The calling of these disciples took place at a time when other teachers had their disciples, most notably the Pharisees (Mk 2:18; Lk 5:33) and John the Baptist (Mt 9:14). It is evident from the practice of John the Baptist that different leaders called for different disciplines from their followers. John’s way was considerably more ascetic in character than that of Jesus; however, it too involved not only teaching regarding conduct and manner of life, but also a distinctive pattern of praying (Lk 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>The disciples of Jesus had a unique experience. Not only did they benefit from the immediate teaching of Jesus, his looks and tones of voice (Mk 10:21) as well as his words, but they were also witnesses of the unfolding drama of redemption that had Christ as its center. They followed a teacher who embodied the substance of that teaching. The first disciples could be taught by Christ only little by little, not only because of the need to remove their misconceptions (Mt 16:21), but also because the full significance of what Jesus said and did could not be most fully appreciated until after the events of his death and resurrection (Mt 28:9). It is not surprising that the period of “discipling” covered the time before and after Christ’s death and resurrection, and also after Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit taught the disciples about matters that they could not “bear” while Jesus remained on earth (Jn 16:12).<\/p>\n<p>Groups of Jesus’ first disciples, both the Twelve and the Seventy (Mt 26:20: Lk 10:1), received his teaching, taught others in turn (Lk 10:1-11), and were given power to heal (Mt 10:1). They were also to proclaim the message of salvation through Christ. Yet the Twelve were given special prominence, and with the exception of Judas Iscariot (whose place was taken by Matthias, Acts 1:26), they became the foundation teachers of the newly emerging Christian church. Their authority in the church, given by Christ (Mt 16:19; 28:16-20), was to be characterized by a unique style of self-giving service (Lk 22:24-30). To this group of disciples, who came to be known as the apostles (though this term is occasionally given to a wider application), Saul of Tarsus was added. At his conversion on the road to Damascus, he saw the risen Lord and was immediately commissioned by Christ (Gal 1:12, 16) as the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of his ascension Christ commissioned the first disciples to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19); hence, the term “disciple” is also used in the book of Acts to describe believers, those who confess Christ. Though they have not been directly called by Christ himself, such disciples are called by Christ’s Spirit through the message delivered by the first disciples; disciples called later are not in any sense inferior to the first disciples, even though they are less privileged. It was proper for early Christians to be called disciples of Jesus of Nazareth or simply “the disciples” (Acts 6:1-2, 7; 9:36; 11:26) because they were carrying on the teaching of Jesus and living the life he had exemplified. They were thus recognized as a “school” or living community that embodied the teaching of their “master” in practice. The book of 1 John emphasizes that only those who keep Christ’s commandments show real love for God (1 Jn 2:3-6; 3:10-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DISCIPLE Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present. In ...","summary_en":"DISCIPLE Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present. In ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65910,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","summary_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93536,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","summary_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121162,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","summary_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148788,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","title_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>The world still lives in darkness and cannot understand the realities of life or of God (1:5, 10). Divine revelation is inaccessible to the world. In fact, when the light of God penetrates the darkness, exposing the ugliness of the world, many people flee deeper into the darkness because they prefer it to the light (3:19-20). Only the transforming power of God’s Spirit can provide understanding and help people see clearly as children of God (3:21; 8:12; 12:35-36, 46).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Isa 6:8-13; 56:10-11; Matt 13:11-17; John 1:10-11; 3:19-20; John 7:32-36; 9:40-41; 12:40; Rom 1:21; 2 Cor 3:13-18; 4:3-4; 1 Jn 2:9-11; Rev 3:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","summary_en":"Misunderstanding in the Gospel of John Throughout John’s Gospel, people encountering Jesus misunderstood him (see John 3:4; 4:11, 33; 7:35; 11:12-13). They were divided over the question of Jesus’ identity. When they perceived what he was really saying, some wanted to arrest him while others wanted to become his followers (7:40-44). Only later, when Jesus’ disciples had received the Spirit, did they really understand his significance (see 16:12-13). The world still lives in darkness and canno...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":4659,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible*, Canon","title_en":"of the Bible*, Canon","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, C<span>anon of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CanonoftheOldTestament\">Canon of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of <em>Torah<\/em> (Law), <em>Nevi<\/em><em>’<\/em><em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and <em>Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (<span>niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (<em>Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (<em>Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around <span>AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also <em>Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\n<p>The 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\n<p>The oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century <span>AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\n<p>Even though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Early Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\n<p>The division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CanonoftheNewTestament\">Canon of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<p>From this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\n<p>Tertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\n<p>From available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\n<p>Though a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze <em>how<\/em> and <em>why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\n<p>The historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n<p>1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\n<p>Again, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century <span>AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\n<p>The principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, <span>nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\n<p>One of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about <span>AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\n<p>The first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\n<p>The Epistles of Ignatius (c. <span>AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\n<p>It is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around <span>AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\n<p>The heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\n<p>Irenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\n<p>Tatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by <span>AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the <em>Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\n<p>Translated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by <span>AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\n<p>The outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (<span>AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the <em>Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\n<p>Dionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\n<p>Early in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (<span>AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his <em>Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\n<p>It is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his <em>Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (<span>AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\n<p>By its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\n<p>Actually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (<span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\n<p>The church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, C<span>anon of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CanonoftheOldTestament\">Canon of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of <em>Torah<\/em> (Law), <em>Nevi<\/em><em>’<\/em><em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and <em>Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (<span>niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (<em>Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (<em>Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around <span>AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also <em>Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\n<p>The 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\n<p>The oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century <span>AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\n<p>Even though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Early Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\n<p>The division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CanonoftheNewTestament\">Canon of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<p>From this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\n<p>Tertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\n<p>From available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\n<p>Though a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze <em>how<\/em> and <em>why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\n<p>The historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n<p>1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\n<p>Again, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century <span>AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\n<p>The principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, <span>nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\n<p>One of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about <span>AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\n<p>The first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\n<p>The Epistles of Ignatius (c. <span>AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\n<p>It is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around <span>AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\n<p>The heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\n<p>Irenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\n<p>Tatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by <span>AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the <em>Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\n<p>Translated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by <span>AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\n<p>The outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (<span>AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the <em>Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\n<p>Dionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\n<p>Early in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (<span>AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his <em>Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\n<p>It is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his <em>Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (<span>AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\n<p>By its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\n<p>Actually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (<span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\n<p>The church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4685,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible*, Inspiration","title_en":"of the Bible*, Inspiration","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, I<span>nspiration of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, <span>kjv<\/span>). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (<span>niv<\/span>). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God and were written by men. The apostle Peter affirmed this when he said that “no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pt 1:20-21, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Men spoke from God.” This short sentence is the key to understanding how the Bible came into being. Thousands of years ago, God chose certain men—such as Moses, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel—to receive his words and write them down. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the OT. Nearly 2,000 years ago, God chose other men—such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Paul—to communicate his new message, the message of salvation through Jesus Christ. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>God gave his words to these men in many different ways. Certain writers of the OT received messages directly from God. Moses was given the Ten Commandments inscribed on a stone when he was in God’s presence on Mt Sinai. When David was composing his psalms to God, he received divine inspiration to foretell certain events that would occur 1,000 years later in Jesus Christ’s life. God told his prophets—such as Isaiah and Jeremiah—exactly what to say; therefore, when they gave a message, it was God’s word, not their own. This is why many OT prophets often said, “Thus says the Lord.” (This statement appears over 2,000 times in the OT.) To other prophets, such as Ezekiel and Daniel, God communicated his message through visions and dreams. They recorded exactly what they saw, whether they understood it or not. And other OT writers, such as Samuel and Ezra, were directed by God to record events in the history of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Four hundred years after the last book of the OT (Malachi) was written, God’s Son, Jesus Christ, came to earth. In his talks, he affirmed the divine authorship of the OT writings (see Mt 5:17-19; Lk 16:17; Jn 10:35). Furthermore, he often pointed to certain passages in the OT as having predicted certain events in his life (see Lk 24:27, 44). The NT writers also affirmed the divine inspiration of the OT text. It was the apostle Paul who was directed by God to write, “All Scripture is God-inspired.” Quite specifically, he was speaking of the OT. And, as was already noted, Peter said that the OT prophets were motivated by the Holy Spirit to speak from God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT is also a God-inspired book. Before Jesus left this earth and returned to his Father, he told the disciples that he would send the Holy Spirit to them. He told them that one of the functions of the Holy Spirit would be to remind them of all the things that Jesus had said and then to guide them into more truth (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-15). Those who wrote the Gospels were helped by the Holy Spirit to remember Jesus’ exact words, and those who wrote other parts of the NT were guided by the Spirit as they wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for writing the Gospels didn’t begin when the authors set pen to papyrus; the inspiration began when the disciples Matthew, Peter (for whom Mark wrote), and John were enlightened by their encounters with Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The apostles’ experiences with him altered their lives forever, imprinting on their souls unforgettable images of the revealed God-man, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This is what John was speaking of in the prologue to his Gospel when he declared, “The Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory” (1:14, paraphrased). The “we” refers to those eyewitnesses of Jesus’ glory—the apostles who lived with Jesus for over three years. This reminiscence is expanded upon in John’s prologue to his first epistle, where he says “we have heard him, touched him, seen him, and looked upon him” (1 Jn 1:1-2, paraphrased). In both the Gospel and the Epistle, the verbs are in the perfect tense, denoting a past action with a present, abiding effect. Those past encounters with Jesus were never forgotten by John; they lived with him and stayed with him as an inspiring spirit until the day—many years later—he wrote of them in his Gospel. The same could be said for Matthew, who wrote an important Gospel, and Peter, who was really the author behind Mark’s composition. Luke was not an eyewitness, but he based his Gospel on the accounts of those who were (see Lk 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for the writing of the Epistles can also be traced to the writers’ encounters with the living Christ. The most prominent epistle writer, Paul, repeatedly claims that his inspiration and subsequent commission came from his encounter with the risen Christ (see, for example, 1 Cor 15:8-10). Peter also claims that his writings were based upon his experiences with the living Christ (see 1 Pt 5:1; 2 Pt 1:16-18). And so does John, who claims to have experienced the God-man visibly, audibly, and palpably (see 1 Jn 1:1-4). James and Jude make no such claim directly, but since they were the brothers of Jesus who became converts when they saw the risen Christ (this is certain for James—see 1 Cor 15:7—and presumed for Jude—see Acts 1:14), they too drew their inspiration from their encounters with the living Christ. Thus, all the epistle writers (with the possible exception of the one who wrote Hebrews, who is unknown) knew the living Christ. This is the relationship that qualified them to write those books that became part of the NT canon. This made them distinct from all others, no matter how good their writings were.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the NT epistles were inspired by the Spirit when they wrote. Speaking for all the apostles, Paul indicated that the NT apostles were taught by the Holy Spirit what to say. The writers of the NT did not speak with words “taught by human wisdom,” but with “words taught by the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Cor 2:10-13). What they wrote was Spirit-taught. For example, when the apostle John saw that Jesus Christ had come to give eternal life to men, the Spirit helped him express this truth in many different ways. Thus, the reader of John’s Gospel sees different phrases about Jesus giving life: “in him was life,” “a well of living water springing up into eternal life,” “the bread of life,” “the light of life,” “the resurrection and the life,” etc. (see Jn 1:4; 4:14; 6:48; 8:12; 11:25; 14:6). When the apostle Paul contemplated the fullness of Christ’s deity, he was inspired by the Spirit to use such phrasing as “in him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily,” “in him are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge,” and “the unsearchable riches of Christ” (see Col 2:3, 9; Eph 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As the Spirit taught the writers, they used their own vocabulary and writing style to express the thought of the Spirit. As such, the Scriptures came as the result of divine and human cooperation. The Scriptures were not mechanically inspired—as if God used the men as machines through whom he dictated the divine utterance. Rather, the Scriptures were inspired by God, then written by men. The Bible, therefore, is both fully divine and fully human.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, I<span>nspiration of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, <span>kjv<\/span>). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (<span>niv<\/span>). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God and were written by men. The apostle Peter affirmed this when he said that “no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pt 1:20-21, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Men spoke from God.” This short sentence is the key to understanding how the Bible came into being. Thousands of years ago, God chose certain men—such as Moses, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel—to receive his words and write them down. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the OT. Nearly 2,000 years ago, God chose other men—such as Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Paul—to communicate his new message, the message of salvation through Jesus Christ. What they wrote became books, or sections, of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>God gave his words to these men in many different ways. Certain writers of the OT received messages directly from God. Moses was given the Ten Commandments inscribed on a stone when he was in God’s presence on Mt Sinai. When David was composing his psalms to God, he received divine inspiration to foretell certain events that would occur 1,000 years later in Jesus Christ’s life. God told his prophets—such as Isaiah and Jeremiah—exactly what to say; therefore, when they gave a message, it was God’s word, not their own. This is why many OT prophets often said, “Thus says the Lord.” (This statement appears over 2,000 times in the OT.) To other prophets, such as Ezekiel and Daniel, God communicated his message through visions and dreams. They recorded exactly what they saw, whether they understood it or not. And other OT writers, such as Samuel and Ezra, were directed by God to record events in the history of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Four hundred years after the last book of the OT (Malachi) was written, God’s Son, Jesus Christ, came to earth. In his talks, he affirmed the divine authorship of the OT writings (see Mt 5:17-19; Lk 16:17; Jn 10:35). Furthermore, he often pointed to certain passages in the OT as having predicted certain events in his life (see Lk 24:27, 44). The NT writers also affirmed the divine inspiration of the OT text. It was the apostle Paul who was directed by God to write, “All Scripture is God-inspired.” Quite specifically, he was speaking of the OT. And, as was already noted, Peter said that the OT prophets were motivated by the Holy Spirit to speak from God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT is also a God-inspired book. Before Jesus left this earth and returned to his Father, he told the disciples that he would send the Holy Spirit to them. He told them that one of the functions of the Holy Spirit would be to remind them of all the things that Jesus had said and then to guide them into more truth (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-15). Those who wrote the Gospels were helped by the Holy Spirit to remember Jesus’ exact words, and those who wrote other parts of the NT were guided by the Spirit as they wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for writing the Gospels didn’t begin when the authors set pen to papyrus; the inspiration began when the disciples Matthew, Peter (for whom Mark wrote), and John were enlightened by their encounters with Jesus Christ, the Son of God. The apostles’ experiences with him altered their lives forever, imprinting on their souls unforgettable images of the revealed God-man, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This is what John was speaking of in the prologue to his Gospel when he declared, “The Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory” (1:14, paraphrased). The “we” refers to those eyewitnesses of Jesus’ glory—the apostles who lived with Jesus for over three years. This reminiscence is expanded upon in John’s prologue to his first epistle, where he says “we have heard him, touched him, seen him, and looked upon him” (1 Jn 1:1-2, paraphrased). In both the Gospel and the Epistle, the verbs are in the perfect tense, denoting a past action with a present, abiding effect. Those past encounters with Jesus were never forgotten by John; they lived with him and stayed with him as an inspiring spirit until the day—many years later—he wrote of them in his Gospel. The same could be said for Matthew, who wrote an important Gospel, and Peter, who was really the author behind Mark’s composition. Luke was not an eyewitness, but he based his Gospel on the accounts of those who were (see Lk 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The inspiration for the writing of the Epistles can also be traced to the writers’ encounters with the living Christ. The most prominent epistle writer, Paul, repeatedly claims that his inspiration and subsequent commission came from his encounter with the risen Christ (see, for example, 1 Cor 15:8-10). Peter also claims that his writings were based upon his experiences with the living Christ (see 1 Pt 5:1; 2 Pt 1:16-18). And so does John, who claims to have experienced the God-man visibly, audibly, and palpably (see 1 Jn 1:1-4). James and Jude make no such claim directly, but since they were the brothers of Jesus who became converts when they saw the risen Christ (this is certain for James—see 1 Cor 15:7—and presumed for Jude—see Acts 1:14), they too drew their inspiration from their encounters with the living Christ. Thus, all the epistle writers (with the possible exception of the one who wrote Hebrews, who is unknown) knew the living Christ. This is the relationship that qualified them to write those books that became part of the NT canon. This made them distinct from all others, no matter how good their writings were.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the NT epistles were inspired by the Spirit when they wrote. Speaking for all the apostles, Paul indicated that the NT apostles were taught by the Holy Spirit what to say. The writers of the NT did not speak with words “taught by human wisdom,” but with “words taught by the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Cor 2:10-13). What they wrote was Spirit-taught. For example, when the apostle John saw that Jesus Christ had come to give eternal life to men, the Spirit helped him express this truth in many different ways. Thus, the reader of John’s Gospel sees different phrases about Jesus giving life: “in him was life,” “a well of living water springing up into eternal life,” “the bread of life,” “the light of life,” “the resurrection and the life,” etc. (see Jn 1:4; 4:14; 6:48; 8:12; 11:25; 14:6). When the apostle Paul contemplated the fullness of Christ’s deity, he was inspired by the Spirit to use such phrasing as “in him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily,” “in him are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge,” and “the unsearchable riches of Christ” (see Col 2:3, 9; Eph 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As the Spirit taught the writers, they used their own vocabulary and writing style to express the thought of the Spirit. As such, the Scriptures came as the result of divine and human cooperation. The Scriptures were not mechanically inspired—as if God used the men as machines through whom he dictated the divine utterance. Rather, the Scriptures were inspired by God, then written by men. The Bible, therefore, is both fully divine and fully human.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Inspiration of the Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing. The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, kjv). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (niv). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God a...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Inspiration of the Theological term for the influence God exerted on the writers of Scripture, enabling them to transmit his revelations in writing. The Bible itself tells us that it is an inspired text. It says, “All scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Tm 3:16, kjv). A translation closer to the original language (Greek) would be, “All Scripture is God-breathed” (niv). This tells us that every word of the Bible was breathed out from God. The words of the Bible came from God a...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28839,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paraclete*","title_en":"Paraclete*","content_ro":"<h3>Paraclete*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s Gospel, all referring to the work of the Holy Spirit (Jn 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:13). In these passages Jesus declares that the Holy Spirit will come from the Father when he departs. The Paraclete, also called “the Spirit of truth,” will lead them into all truth and aid them in their ability to recall correctly Jesus’ message. He is to become their special replacement for the departed Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paraclete*<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s Gospel, all referring to the work of the Holy Spirit (Jn 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:13). In these passages Jesus declares that the Holy Spirit will come from the Father when he departs. The Paraclete, also called “the Spirit of truth,” will lead them into all truth and aid them in their ability to recall correctly Jesus’ message. He is to become their special replacement for the departed Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Spirit of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paraclete* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28). The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s ...","summary_en":"Paraclete* Transliteration of a Greek word meaning “one who is called to someone’s aid” or “one who advocates for another.” Thus, the term may be used technically for a lawyer. More generally, the word denotes one who acts in another’s behalf as a mediator, an intercessor, or an encourager. In 1 John 2:1 Christ is called a paraclete because he represents people to God. This function is akin to his ministry as High Priest (cf. Heb 7:25-28). The most numerous uses of “paraclete” come in John’s ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36209,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","title_en":"Spirit of Jesus Christ","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as the Spirit that inspired and empowered Jesus himself. This Spirit became available to the believers after Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\n<p> The apostles John and Paul were quite clear in their writings about Christ becoming spirit through resurrection. The keynote verses penned by John are John 6:63; 7:37-39; 14:16-18; 20:22; and 1 John 3:24; 4:13. The critical passages written by Paul are Romans 8:9-10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 2 Corinthians 3:17-18; and 1 Corinthians 6:17.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation concerning the Spirit of Jesus is progressive in the Gospel of John. John does not tell us from the beginning that people could not actually receive eternal life until the hour of Christ’s glorification. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus declares to various people that he can give them eternal life if they would believe in him. He promises them the water of life, the bread of life, and the light of life. But no one could really partake of these until after the Lord had risen. As a foretaste, as a sample, they could receive life via the Lord’s words because his words were themselves spirit and life (Jn 6:63); however, it was not until the Spirit would become available that believers could actually become the recipients of the divine, eternal life. After the Lord’s discourse in John 6, Jesus said, “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh profits nothing” (v 63). In the flesh Jesus could not give them the bread of life, but when the Spirit became available, they could have life. Again, Jesus offered the water of life—even life flowing like rivers of living water—to the Jews assembled at the Feast of Tabernacles. He told them to come and drink of him. But no one could, then and there, come and drink of him. So John added a note: “But this he spoke concerning the Spirit, for the Spirit was not yet because Jesus was not yet glorified” (7:39). Once Jesus would be glorified through resurrection, the Spirit of the glorified Jesus would be available for people to drink. In John 6, Jesus offered himself as the bread of life to be eaten by people; and in John 7, he offered himself as the water of life to refresh men. But no one could eat him or drink him until he became spirit, as was intimated in John 6:63 and then stated plainly in John 7:39.<\/p>\n\n<p>In John 14:16-18, Jesus went one step further in identifying himself with the Spirit. He told the disciples that he would give them another Comforter. Then he told them that they should know who this Comforter was because he was, then and there, abiding with them and would, in the near future, be in them. Who else but Jesus was abiding with them at that time? Then after telling the disciples that the Comforter would come to them, he said, “I am coming to you.” First he said that the Comforter would come to them and abide in them, and then in the same breath he said that he would come to them and abide in them (see 14:20). In short, the coming of the Comforter to the disciples was one and the same as the coming of Jesus to the disciples. The Comforter who was dwelling with the disciples that night was the Spirit in Christ; the Comforter who would be in the disciples (after the resurrection) would be Christ in the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>On the evening of the resurrection, the Lord Jesus appeared to the disciples and then breathed into them the Holy Spirit. This inbreathing, reminiscent of God’s breathing into Adam the breath of life (Gn 2:7), became the fulfillment of all that had been promised and anticipated earlier in John’s Gospel. Through this impartation, the disciples became regenerated and indwelt by the Spirit of Jesus Christ. This historical event marked the genesis of the new creation. Jesus could now be realized as the bread of life, the water of life, and the light of life. The believers now possessed his divine, eternal, risen life. From that time forward, Christ as spirit indwelt his believers. Thus, in his first epistle John could say, “And hereby we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us” (1 Jn 3:24), and again, “Hereby we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit” (4:13).<\/p>\n<p>The apostles had quite an adjustment to make after Christ’s resurrection. They had become so accustomed to his physical presence that it was difficult for them to learn how to live by his spiritual, indwelling presence. All through the 40 days after his resurrection, from the time the apostles received the inbreathing of the Spirit, Christ was teaching the disciples to make the transfer. He would physically appear and then disappear intermittently. His appearances were very frequent in the beginning and then they steadily diminished. His aim was to guide the apostles into knowing him in his invisible presence. However, this was so new to them that he had to keep appearing to them in order to strengthen and reassure them. But his real desire was to help them live by faith and not by sight. When he appeared to the disciples as they were all together the second time, with Thomas present, he chided Thomas for his unbelief. Then he prounounced this blessing, “Blessed are those who do not see me and yet believe” (Jn 20:29).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul was such a “blessed” one. He did not know Christ in the flesh. He knew only the risen Christ (2 Cor 5:15-16). In this regard, he had an advantage over the early apostles. They had a great adjustment to make, but from the very beginning, Paul knew the risen Christ as Spirit. Paul became the forerunner of all those Christians who have never seen Jesus in the flesh and who have come to experience him in the Spirit. Yes, Paul had seen the risen Lord; he was the last one to do so (1 Cor 15:8). And from that time onward he realized that Jesus was a glorified man, exalted far above all. Paul wrote much concerning this, but his writings did not leave the far-above-all Jesus far away because this was not what Paul experienced. Any experienced Christian should be able to testify that the Christ in the heavens is also the Christ in the heart.<\/p>\n<p>In his writings, Paul often speaks of the Spirit and Christ synonymously. This is evident in Romans 8:9-10. The terms “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are all used interchangeably. The Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ, and the Spirit of Christ is Christ. In these verses, it is evident that Paul identified the Spirit with Christ because in Christian experience they are absolutely identical. There is no such thing as an experience of Christ apart from the Spirit. The separation and\/or distinction does exist in Trinitarian theology—and for very good reasons—but the separation is nearly nonexistent in actual experience. Several of Paul’s statements are written from the vantage point of experience.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 15:45, Paul says that the risen Jesus became life-giving spirit. Notice the verse does not say Jesus became the Spirit, as if the second person of the Trinity became the third, but that Jesus became spirit in the sense that his mortal existence and form were metamorphosed into a spiritual existence and form. Jesus’ person was not changed through the resurrection, only his form. With this changed spiritual form, Jesus regained the essential state of being he had emptied himself of in becoming a man. Before he became a man, he subsisted in the form of God (Phil 2:6), which form is Spirit and thereby was united to the Spirit (the third of the Trinity), while still remaining distinct. Thus, when the scripture says that the Lord “became life-giving spirit,” it does not mean that the Son became the Holy Spirit. But it does indicate that Christ, via resurrection, appropriated a new, spiritual form (while still retaining a body—a glorified one) that enabled him to commence a new spiritual existence (see 1 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Corinthians 3, Paul explains that the NT ministry is a ministry carried out by the Spirit of the living God (v 3), who is the Spirit that gives life (v 6). In fact, the whole NT economy is characterized as “the ministry of the Spirit” (v 8). At the same time, Paul emphasizes that the function of the NT ministry is to bring God’s people to see and experience the glorious Christ (3:3, 14, 16-18; 4:4-6). It is in this context that Paul boldly declares, “The Lord is the Spirit” (3:17). He who turns his heart to the Lord is, in effect, turning his heart to the Spirit. lf the Lord were not the Spirit abiding in the believers, how could they turn their hearts to him? And how could they be transformed into the same image? Second Corinthians 3:18 says, “But we all, with unveiled face mirroring the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord-Spirit.” According to the Greek, the last phrase of this verse could be rendered “the Lord, the Spirit” (see <span>asv<\/span>) or “the Lord, who is the Spirit” (see <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>) because the expression “the Spirit” is in direct apposition to “the Lord” (i.e., it is a further description of the Lord). Thus, the Lord is the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, when the Scriptures identify the Spirit with Christ and vice versa, the identification is not equivocation. Christ is not the Holy Spirit. Christ and the Spirit are distinct persons of the Trinity, as is affirmed by the overall teaching of the Word. But the Scriptures do identify Christ and the Spirit in the context of Christian experience. It would be accurate to say that Christians experience Christ through his Spirit, the Spirit of Christ. One cannot know Jesus apart from the Spirit or other than through the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF JESUS CHRIST The Spirit as identified with Jesus Christ. The most important development and element in earliest Christian understanding of the Spirit is that the Spirit is now the Spirit of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Pt 1:11; see also Jn 7:38; 15:26; 16:7; 19:30; Rv 3:1; 5:6). The Spirit is to be identified as the Spirit that bears witness to Jesus (Jn 15:26; 16:13-15; Acts 5:32; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Jn 4:2; 5:7-8; Rv 19:10), but also, and more profoundly, as t...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37720,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Trinity*","title_en":"Trinity*","content_ro":"<h3>TRINITY*<\/h3>\n<p>Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all the universe (see Jn 5:26; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 3:14-15). The Son is depicted as the image of the invisible God, the exact representation of his being and nature, and the Messiah-Redeemer (see Phil 2:5-6; Col 1:14-16; Heb 1:1-3). The Spirit is God in action, God reaching people—influencing them, regenerating them, infilling them, and guiding them (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; Gal 4:6; Eph 2:18). All three are a tri-unity, inhabiting one another and working together to accomplish the divine design in the universe (see Jn 16:13-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of (Father); Son of God; Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRINITY*<\/h3>\n<p>Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all the universe (see Jn 5:26; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 3:14-15). The Son is depicted as the image of the invisible God, the exact representation of his being and nature, and the Messiah-Redeemer (see Phil 2:5-6; Col 1:14-16; Heb 1:1-3). The Spirit is God in action, God reaching people—influencing them, regenerating them, infilling them, and guiding them (see Jn 14:26; 15:26; Gal 4:6; Eph 2:18). All three are a tri-unity, inhabiting one another and working together to accomplish the divine design in the universe (see Jn 16:13-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of (Father); Son of God; Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRINITY* Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all...","summary_en":"TRINITY* Term designating the three members of the triune God: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible; it was created by scholars to describe the three members of the Godhead. Throughout the Bible, God is presented as being Father, Son, and Spirit—not three “gods” but three personas of the one and only God (see, e.g., Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 16:23-24; 2 Cor 13:13). The Scriptures present the Father as the source of creation, the giver of life, and God of all...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37743,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Truth","title_en":"Truth","content_ro":"<h3>TRUTH<\/h3>\n<p>That which is real and verifiable by experience.<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, truth is a very important concept because God is the God of all truth (Pss 31:5; 108:4; 146:6), who speaks and judges truly (57:3; 96:13). He is the real source and cause of the whole universe. Scripture also focuses on the revealed truth in the gospel of God’s redeeming grace through Christ. This is the truth Christ and the apostles proclaimed (Jn 8:44-46; 18:37; Rom 9:1; 2 Cor 4:2), which was foreshadowed in the OT (1 Pt 1:10-12), and witnessed to by the Holy Spirit (Jn 16:13). The OT teaching was never false, but it was shadowy and incomplete in comparison with the revealed truth of the NT. So Christ brought spiritual reality (Jn 1:17), and the Holy Spirit leads believers into the experience of all that is real in Christ (16:13).<\/p>\n<p>Christ is the truth because, being God, his words carry divine authority. They are truth and life (Jn 6:63). In addition, the life of Christ epitomized truthfulness and utter reliability. When people live in obedience to the truth, they themselves are true and reliable. Scripture calls upon people to “do the truth” (Jn 3:21, <span>kjv<\/span>). Those who have experienced God’s reality in Christ know, by experience, that Christ is the way, the truth, and the life (Jn 14:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRUTH<\/h3>\n<p>That which is real and verifiable by experience.<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, truth is a very important concept because God is the God of all truth (Pss 31:5; 108:4; 146:6), who speaks and judges truly (57:3; 96:13). He is the real source and cause of the whole universe. Scripture also focuses on the revealed truth in the gospel of God’s redeeming grace through Christ. This is the truth Christ and the apostles proclaimed (Jn 8:44-46; 18:37; Rom 9:1; 2 Cor 4:2), which was foreshadowed in the OT (1 Pt 1:10-12), and witnessed to by the Holy Spirit (Jn 16:13). The OT teaching was never false, but it was shadowy and incomplete in comparison with the revealed truth of the NT. So Christ brought spiritual reality (Jn 1:17), and the Holy Spirit leads believers into the experience of all that is real in Christ (16:13).<\/p>\n<p>Christ is the truth because, being God, his words carry divine authority. They are truth and life (Jn 6:63). In addition, the life of Christ epitomized truthfulness and utter reliability. When people live in obedience to the truth, they themselves are true and reliable. Scripture calls upon people to “do the truth” (Jn 3:21, <span>kjv<\/span>). Those who have experienced God’s reality in Christ know, by experience, that Christ is the way, the truth, and the life (Jn 14:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRUTH That which is real and verifiable by experience. In Scripture, truth is a very important concept because God is the God of all truth (Pss 31:5; 108:4; 146:6), who speaks and judges truly (57:3; 96:13). He is the real source and cause of the whole universe. Scripture also focuses on the revealed truth in the gospel of God’s redeeming grace through Christ. This is the truth Christ and the apostles proclaimed (Jn 8:44-46; 18:37; Rom 9:1; 2 Cor 4:2), which was foreshadowed in the OT (1 Pt 1...","summary_en":"TRUTH That which is real and verifiable by experience. In Scripture, truth is a very important concept because God is the God of all truth (Pss 31:5; 108:4; 146:6), who speaks and judges truly (57:3; 96:13). He is the real source and cause of the whole universe. Scripture also focuses on the revealed truth in the gospel of God’s redeeming grace through Christ. This is the truth Christ and the apostles proclaimed (Jn 8:44-46; 18:37; Rom 9:1; 2 Cor 4:2), which was foreshadowed in the OT (1 Pt 1...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:13","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:13","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:13","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139552,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:13","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:13<\/strong> The <em>Spirit of truth<\/em><em>,<\/em> who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only <em>what he has heard<\/em> from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and <em>the future<\/em> (see 14:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of truth, who conveys truth from God, guides the judgment of the world. • The Spirit says only what he has heard from the Father. The Father, Son, and Spirit work in perfect unity (16:15). The disciples could expect the Spirit to reveal things they had not heard before about the present and the future (see 14:26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62445,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Counsel from Others","title_en":"Counsel from Others","content_ro":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","summary_en":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65970,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66187,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67005,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90071,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Counsel from Others","title_en":"Counsel from Others","content_ro":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","summary_en":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93596,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93813,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94631,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117697,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Counsel from Others","title_en":"Counsel from Others","content_ro":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","summary_en":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121222,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121439,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122257,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145323,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Counsel from Others","title_en":"Counsel from Others","content_ro":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Counsel from Others<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforters repeatedly elaborated on the biblical principle of sowing and reaping, which was deeply embedded in the covenant (Lev 26; Deut 28; Prov 1:31; 22:8; Hos 8:7; see also Gal 6:7-8). We can’t simply reject their words because much of what they said is correct teaching about God’s nature and his ways of working with human beings. However, Job’s friends misapplied this principle (see Job 4:8). They didn’t look at Job’s life, point out where he had sown evil, and then threaten divine judgment. Instead, they ignored Job’s faithful pattern of life, focused on his torment, and concluded that he was reaping the effects of sin. God eventually called these counselors liars, reminding us that right theology must be rightly applied in order to please God and build up others (Prov 15:2-4, 23; 25:11; Isa 50:4; Eph 4:29).<\/p>\n<p>While it is good to weigh advice from various sources, we must compare the counsel of others with what we believe to be right before God (see, e.g., Acts 20:22; 21:4, 11, 13). God might use human counselors to help us define his will, but God himself also guides us through his Spirit (John 16:13-15). Jesus Christ is our “Wonderful Counselor” (Isa 9:6; see Isa 28:29), who embodies “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:3). And when we have opportunities to come alongside others in moments of grief, we must be cautious and tactful in how we apply scriptural principles. Often, our silent presence is the most helpful counsel we can offer.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 17:1-23; 1 Kgs 12:3-17; 22:15-28; Job 2:9-10; 4:8; 12:17; 16:2; Prov 1:5; 9:9; 11:14; 12:15; 15:2-4, 22-23; 19:20; 20:18; 24:6; 25:11; 27:9; Isa 9:6; 28:29; 50:4; Rom 8:14; Eph 4:29; Col 2:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","summary_en":"Counsel from Others The book of Proverbs teaches that many counselors are good because they provide safety (Prov 11:14; 24:6) and improve our odds of success (Prov 15:22). The book of Job shows that counselors can also mislead, even when their theology is evidently orthodox (Job 12:17; 26:3). Job’s friends initially joined with Job in his suffering, sitting silently in grief with him for seven days (Job 2:11-13). But as soon as they opened their mouths, their consolation ended. Job’s comforte...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148848,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Our Advocate","title_en":"Our Advocate","content_ro":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Our Advocate<\/h3>\n<p>On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span> (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal meaning of a lawyer providing advice or counsel is closer to the mark. “Comforter” is another popular translation, but this can also be misleading; the older English meaning of someone who strengthens (an “encourager”) is more accurate to the New Testament concept of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paraklētos<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Jesus described the Spirit as <em>another<\/em> Advocate (14:16). Jesus, who is the first advocate (see 1 Jn 2:1), sent a second Advocate, the Holy Spirit. Every task of the Spirit described in John 14–16 is a task Jesus undertook elsewhere in the Gospel. Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would come to encourage, instruct, and strengthen his followers. In fact, the Spirit would sustain Jesus’ own presence among his disciples. Five promises about the Spirit each indicate a different work that the Spirit does (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-8, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit became available to Jesus’ disciples after his death (see 7:39; 20:22). The Spirit now continues the work of Jesus and his presence in the life of believers (14:16-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:25; 24:15; 2 Sam 15:12; 1 Kgs 12:6-14; 1 Chr 27:32; Job 16:18-22; Isa 1:26; 9:6; John 14:1–16:15; Gal 3:19-20; 6:13; 1 Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Jn 2:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","summary_en":"Our Advocate On four occasions in the Gospel of John, the unusual Greek word paraklētos (“called alongside,” “advocate”) is used to describe the Holy Spirit (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This term occurs elsewhere in Greek literature, where it refers to a legal advocate—someone who speaks in a person’s defense and provides legal counsel. “Counselor” is a popular translation of this term, but the therapeutic connotations of this word in contemporary English are misleading; the older legal mea...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149065,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider the membership of Gentiles in the church, those present followed the Spirit’s direction (15:28). Christian workers such as Stephen and Philip were filled with the Spirit and preached by his power (6:1–8:40), and Paul’s ministry was charged with the Spirit’s energy from the beginning (9:17). In Acts, the growth, development, and expansion of the church took place entirely under the guidance and power of the Spirit (e.g., 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:31). Because of the prominence of the Spirit’s work in Acts, the book has often been called “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit works in many ways. He gives and restores life (Gen 2:7; Ps 104:24-30; Ezek 37:1-14; Joel 2:28-32; Rom 8:9-11). He calls and commissions workers for the service of Christ (Acts 13:2; 20:28) and guides God’s servants where and when he wants, to do as he desires (8:29; 9:15; 10:19-20; 11:12; 16:6; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Pet 1:12). He inspired the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21), instructing the church in Christ’s message (John 14:26; 1 Cor 12:3). He bears witness to the power of the Good News in signs and wonders (Acts 14:3; Heb 2:4), and teaches the truths of Scripture to God’s people (Acts 1:16; Heb 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12). He bears witness to Jesus and brings him glory (John 15:26; 16:13-14). He convicts people of their sinfulness and need for the Good News (John 16:8) and warns people against hardening their hearts (Heb 3:7-11, 15). He bestows gifts upon God’s people (1 Cor 12:4-11), and he energizes and equips them to share the Good News, serve the Lord, and work for the Kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8, 16; 2:4, 41-47; 4:31; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:15, 17, 29; 9:15, 17, 31; 10:19-20; 11:12; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 2:13; 12:1-11; Eph 1:13-14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Presence The book of Acts clearly highlights the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Before the coming of the Spirit, Jesus spoke of the Spirit’s influence on his followers (1:8; see John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Spirit’s guidance was clear in the selection of Spirit-filled leaders to care for the needs of the Hellenistic widows (Acts 6:1-7) and in the appointing of Barnabas and Saul for missionary service (13:1-5). When the first church council met to consider ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149883,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\n<p>Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":4712,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":20233,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel of John","title_en":"Gospel of John","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN, Gospel of<\/h3>\n<p>The fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospels. (See discussion above on John, the Apostle.)<\/p>\n\n<p>The Gospel appears to have been written by one who knew the Jews and the Palestine of Jesus’ day well. He was familiar with Jewish messianic expectations (e.g., Jn 1:20-21; 4:25; 7:40-42; 12:34). He knew of the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (4:9) and the contempt the Pharisees had for “the people of the land” (7:49). He knew of the importance attached to the religious schools (v 15). He knew the way the Sabbath was observed and was aware of the provision that the obligation to circumcise on the eighth day overrides the Sabbath regulations (vv 22-23). Throughout the Gospel he moved with certainty in the vast range of Jewish ideas and customs.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same with topography. The writer mentioned many places, and his place-names all seem to be used correctly. He referred to Cana, a village not mentioned in any earlier literature known to us, which means that the reference almost certainly came from someone who actually knew the place. He located Bethany with some precision as about 15 stadia from Jerusalem (about 2 miles, or 3.2 kilometers, 11:18). He had several references to places in or near Jerusalem, such as Bethesda (5:2), Siloam (9:7), and the Kidron Valley (18:1). Of course, this does not rule out some contemporary of John’s, but it makes it difficult to think of the author as a much later individual writing at a distance from Palestine. The evidence as we have it indicates that the writer was a Jew in the Palestine of Jesus’ day.<\/p>\n<p>To many careful readers, it seems that the Gospel bears the stamp of an eyewitness. For example, Jesus was teaching “in the treasury” (8:20). Nothing is made of the point; the incident could easily have been told without it. It looks like a reminiscence of someone who sees the scene in his mind’s eye as he writes. The fact that the house was filled with fragrance when the woman broke the perfume jar (12:3) does not materially affect the account but is the kind of detail that one who was there would remember. The author noted that the loaves used in the feeding of the multitude were barley loaves (6:9) and that Jesus’ tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top to bottom (19:23). He told us that the branches with which Jesus was greeted were palm branches (12:13), and that it was night when Judas went out (13:30). Such touches are found throughout the Gospel, and it seems unjustified to treat them as no more than an attempt to create verisimilitude. They seem much more like indications that the author was writing about events in which he had himself taken part.<\/p>\n<p>The early church accepted Johannine authorship without question. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian all see the apostle as the author. The first to quote this Gospel by name was Theophilus of Antioch, about <span>AD<\/span> 180.<\/p>\n<p>Those who object to Johannine authorship emphasize the differences between this Gospel and the Synoptics. The argument is that if Jesus was anything like the Christ portrayed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, he could not be like the Christ of the fourth Gospel. This is a completely subjective argument, ignoring the fact that any great man will appear differently to different people. The judgment of the church throughout the centuries has been that Jesus was large enough to inspire both portraits. To put the same point another way, we have no reason for holding that the first three Evangelists tell us all there is to know about Jesus. There is no contradiction. John simply brings out other aspects of Jesus’ life and teachings.<\/p>\n<p>While we cannot prove beyond all doubt that John the apostle was the author, we can say that there is more reason for holding to this view than to any other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>It has been usual for conservatives and liberals alike to date this writing in the last decade of the first century or early in the second. Some liberal scholars have put it well into the second century, but this is not common, and it is remarkable that there has been such a considerable measure of agreement.<\/p>\n<p>It is said that this Gospel is dependent on the Synoptics, which means that it must be dated sometime after them. But this argument has been widely abandoned in recent times. There is so much in John that is without parallel in the other three Gospels, and conversely so much in the other three that John might have used had he known it, that it is very difficult indeed to hold that this writer had any of the other Gospels before him when he wrote, or even that he had read them. Such resemblances as there are seem better explained by common use of oral tradition.<\/p>\n<p>It is also argued that there is a very developed theology in John and that we must allow time for its development. Granted, the theology of this Gospel is profound, but this does not require that we must wait for it until the end of the first century. The theology of the Letter to the Romans is also profound, and there is no reason for dating that writing later than the 50s. On the ground of development, then, there is no reason for putting John later than Romans. Development is a slippery argument at best, for it usually takes place at uneven rates, and we have no means of knowing how fast it took place in the area where the author lived.<\/p>\n<p>Other arguments for a late date are no more conclusive. For example, it is urged that the ecclesiastical system presupposed by the Gospel is too late for the time of the apostle John, and that the sacramental system of chapters 3 and 6 must have taken time to develop. But John does not mention any sacrament. It is true that many scholars think these chapters refer to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, but the fact is that John mentions neither.<\/p>\n<p>It is not surprising in view of the way the traditional arguments have crumbled away that many in recent times are arguing that John must have been written before the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it were later, why does not John have some reference to it? Some of his language appears to be earlier. In 5:2 he says there “is” (not “was”) a pool called Bethesda. And he often refers to the Twelve as Jesus’ disciples, or “his” disciples, or the like. In later times Christians usually said “the” disciples, for they saw no need to say whose the disciples were. But in the early days, when Christians were in contact with rabbis (each of whom had his disciples), it was important to show that Jesus’ disciples were in mind. It is important also that John makes no reference to any of the synoptic Gospels. The simplest explanation is that he had not seen them. They were not yet widely circulated.<\/p>\n<p>None of this enables us to date this Gospel with precision. But the weight of evidence points to an early date (before <span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<p>The author was John the apostle, a Jew. However, the writing gives evidence of contact with Greek thought, for example, in the reference to Christ as “the Word” in chapter 1 and the translation of words like “rabbi” (1:38). It is almost universally held that such considerations compel us to see the work as originating in a center of Greek culture, and Ephesus has traditionally been favored. Before the end of the second century we have Irenaeus writing that John published the Gospel during his residence at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to similarities between John and the Odes of Solomon, which they think came from Syria. As there are also some resemblances in the language of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early second century, this is held to show that John was written in Syria, probably at Antioch. Others again think that Egypt was the place, and they support this by pointing out that the oldest fragment of a manuscript of this Gospel was found there. There is no real evidence, and we are left with probabilities. There is much to be said for accepting the evidence of Irenaeus and seeing Ephesus as the place of origin, but we can scarcely say more.<\/p>\n<p>There is no real indication of the intended destination. From 20:31 we learn that the book was written that the readers might believe that Jesus is the Messiah, God’s Son, and that by believing they might have life. The Gospel, then, has an evangelistic aim. But it is also possible that “believe” means “keep on believing”—“go on in faith,” rather than “begin to believe.” That is to say, the book may have been meant from the beginning to build people up in the faith. Probably we should not distinguish between these aims too sharply. Both may well be in mind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Several possible backgrounds to the Gospel have been suggested. The Greek interest is obvious, and this writing has sometimes been called the Gospel of the Hellenists. The suggestion is that we should look to Greek writings, perhaps the works of the philosophers or Philo of Alexandria, to find the right background against which to understand what John has written. This approach may be seen in the work of Rudolf Bultmann, who thought specifically of Gnosticism. Indeed, for Bultmann one of the sources of this Gospel was a discourse source that he thought was taken from non-Christian Gnosticism. Not many have been prepared to follow Bultmann, but a number of recent commentators have discerned some form of Gnosticism as the backdrop to John.<\/p>\n<p>While such views are put forward seriously, there are some substantial objections. One is that, despite the confident assertions of some scholars, Gnosticism has never been shown to be earlier than Christianity. In the form in which it comes before us in history, it is a Christian heresy, and of course, the Christian faith must appear before a Christian heresy is possible. Another objection is that there is a basic difference between the two systems. Gnosticism is concerned with knowledge (the very word is derived from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>,<\/em> “knowledge”). Its “redeemer” is one who comes from heaven with knowledge. But John does not subscribe to the view that man is saved by knowledge. The Redeemer comes to take away the sin of the world (1:29). Gnosticism tells people that life is an upward struggle; Christianity tells of a Savior who came down to raise them up. It is not easy to see any form of Gnosticism as the essential background to Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Much more significant is John’s Semitic background. Especially important here is the OT, accepted as sacred Scripture by Jew and Christian alike. It lies constantly behind John’s statements, and it must be studied carefully if John is to be understood. It is plain that John knew and loved the Septuagint, the translation into Greek of the Hebrew OT. Again and again, the Septuagint can be shown to lie behind what John says.<\/p>\n<p>In modern times important discoveries have been made at Qumran, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Among the scrolls unearthed in the caves of this area are several that have affinities with John. Indeed, one of the interesting facts about the scrolls is that they have more parallels with John than with any other part of the NT, a fact difficult to explain if John was written late and at a distance from Palestine. The resemblances to the Qumran writings must be viewed with care, for there is often a linguistic resemblance where the thinking is quite different. For example, both use the unusual expression “the Spirit of truth.” But where John means one of the persons of the Trinity, the scrolls speak of “a spirit of truth” and “a spirit of error” striving in the souls of people. The connection is real, but John is clearly not dependent on the scrolls for his thinking. The contribution of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they afford additional evidence that this Gospel is basically Palestinian and must be understood against a background of first-century Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Other backgrounds have been suggested, such as the Hermetic literature. This is a group of writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), a designation of the Egyptian god Thoth. There are indeed some points of contact with John, but they are few in comparison with those of writings rooted in Palestine. It is difficult to take such suggestions seriously. John is essentially Palestinian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The writer told us that Jesus did many “signs” (or miracles) that he had not recorded, but “these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing in him you will have life” (Jn 20:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). John wrote to show that Jesus is the Messiah. But he did not do this simply with a view to conveying interesting information. He wanted his readers to see this knowledge as a challenge to faith; when they believe, they will have life. John sought to bring men and women to Christ; he had an evangelistic aim. That does not exhaust what he was trying to do, for his words have meaning for believers. It is important that believers have a right knowledge of Jesus and that they continue to believe.<\/p>\n<p>The main theological teaching of this Gospel, then, is that God has sent his Messiah, Jesus. He is the very Son of God, and he comes to bring life (3:16). Though Jesus told the woman at the well that he was the Messiah, this is not often said so specifically. The avoidance of the term might well be because of the political overtones it had acquired among the Jews at large. They looked for a Messiah who would fight the Romans. He would defeat them and set up a mighty world empire with its capital in Jerusalem. Jesus was not aiming at anything like that, and it was important that he avoid the kind of language that would give that impression. But though the conventional messianic terminology is avoided, John left no doubt that Jesus was God’s chosen one. Again and again he depicted Jesus as fulfilling messianic functions. For example, in the long discourse in chapter 6 we see Jesus as the bread from heaven, fulfilling the expectation that when Messiah came, he would renew the manna; and in the giving of sight to the blind man (ch 9) we have another messianic function (cf. Is 35:5).<\/p>\n<p>With this greatness of Jesus, John also combined teaching about his lowliness. A continuing, though unobtrusive, strand of Johannine teaching is that Jesus depends on the Father for everything. Apart from the Father, Jesus said, he could do nothing (Jn 5:30). His very food is to do the Father’s will (4:34). He lives through the Father (6:57). It is the Father who gives him his disciples (6:37, 44; 17:6). It is the Father who bears witness to him (5:32, 37). John insists that Jesus is in no sense independent of the Father. In the mission of Jesus, John sees the working out of the purpose of the Father.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Prologue and Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>John begins with a prologue (1:1-18) that is unlike anything in any of the other Gospels. In it he refers to Jesus as “the Word,” a term that has points of contact with both Greek and Hebrew thinking. As John uses it, it conveys the thought that Jesus is the expression of the mind of the Father. John speaks of the Word as God (1:1), sees him as active in creation (1:3-5), goes on to the witness borne to him by John the Baptist (1:6-8), speaks of the coming of the Word into the world (1:9-14), and finishes with a section on the greatness of the Word (1:15-18). In this prologue he briefly introduces some of the great themes that will be developed throughout the Gospel. It is a majestic introduction to the whole.<\/p>\n<p>Next we have the beginnings of Jesus’ public ministry (1:19-51). Jesus’ work was preceded by that of John the Baptist, and the Evangelist tells us first about the kind of witness that the Baptist gave to Jesus. Witness is one of his important concepts, and witness is all that John the Baptist does in this Gospel. From this witness we move to the way the first disciples came to Jesus. We learn something of how Andrew and Peter came to know the Lord. We read also of Philip and Nathanael, of whom we learn little or nothing in the other Gospels.<\/p>\n<h5>The Signs and Discourses (2:1–12:50)<\/h5>\n<p>The public ministry of Jesus is described in a very distinctive way in this Gospel. John has a long section (chs 2–12) in which he tells of a number of miracles Jesus did, interweaving into his account a series of discourses. Sometimes these are addresses given to groups of people, and sometimes they are talks with individuals. Some scholars call this section of the Gospel the Book of Signs, thus emphasizing the prominent place given to seven miracles. For John they are not simply wonders. They are meaningful; in the literal sense of the term they are <em>sign<\/em>ificant.<\/p>\n<p>The first of them is the turning of the water into wine at a marriage in Cana of Galilee (2:1-11). The water in question is connected with Jewish rites of purification (v 6), and the story is surely to teach us that Jesus transforms life. He changes the water of the law into the wine of the gospel. As a result of this “sign,” his disciples believed in him (v 11). John went on to tell how Jesus went up to Jerusalem and drove the traders out of the temple. They were selling animals for sacrifice and changing money. But their business was being done in the Court of the Gentiles, the only place in the temple where a Gentile could come to meditate and pray.<\/p>\n<p>The first discourse is on the new birth (3:1-21). Jesus talked with Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee, about the necessity for radical renewal if one is to enter the kingdom. Jesus was speaking of God’s regenerating activity, not some human reformation. Following this, John records a dispute between some of John’s disciples with a Jew on the subject of purification. This opens the way for a section that shows the superiority of Jesus over John the Baptist—by the Baptist’s own confession (3:22-36).<\/p>\n<p>The second discourse is really a long conversation Jesus had with the woman of Samaria, whom he met by a well (4:1-42). It turns on “the water of life,” a term that is not fully explained in this chapter but which we later find points to the life-giving Spirit (7:38-39). This leads to the story of the second sign, the healing of the nobleman’s son (4:46-54), notable for the fact that Jesus healed at a distance.<\/p>\n<p>The third sign is the healing of the lame man by the pool of Bethesda (5:1-18). This man had spent many years waiting for healing at the moving of the water. Jesus told him to get up and walk, and he did. Because it was done on a Sabbath, the Pharisees objected. This leads to Jesus’ third discourse, that on the divine Son (5:19-47). Here the closeness of the relationship of Jesus to the Father is stressed, and his place in the judgment is brought out. There is emphasis also on the variety of witness who encountered Jesus, which shows how reasonable it is to accept him as God’s own Son.<\/p>\n<p>John’s fourth sign is the one miracle (apart from the resurrection) found in all four Gospels: the feeding of the 5,000 (6:1-15). It is followed by Jesus’ walking on water (vv 16-21), which seems to be meant as the fifth sign (though some scholars think not; if they are right, there are only six signs). Then comes the fourth discourse, the great sermon on the bread of life (vv 22-59). Jesus is this bread, which he gives to all men and women who believe in him. There are references to eating his flesh and drinking his blood (vv 50-58), which point to his death. Some have seen in them a reference to Communion, but it is hard to see why Jesus should refer in this way to an as-yet-nonexistent sacrament. Moreover, much the same effect is attributed in the same discourse to believing (vv 35, 47). It seems best to understand Jesus as meaning that people must believe in him as the one who would die for them in order for them to have life.<\/p>\n<p>There is a section detailing Peter’s affirmation of loyalty in the face of some who drifted away from the Master (6:67-71). Then we come to the fifth discourse, on the life-giving Spirit (7:1-52). John has an important explanatory point of his own when he tells us that at the time the Spirit had not been given because Jesus had not yet been glorified (v 39). The fullness of the Spirit depends on the completion of the work of Christ in his death and resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The sixth discourse tells of the light of the world (8:12-59). This aspect of Jesus’ person and ministry is dramatically brought out in the sixth sign, the healing of the man born blind (ch 9). It is a lively narrative, as the healed man conducts a spirited defense against the Pharisees who belittled Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most beautiful of all the illustrations of Jesus’ relations to his people is that on which he dwells in the seventh discourse, where he speaks of himself as the good shepherd (ch 10). There is the obvious truth that sheep depend entirely on their shepherd, but Jesus says something else. Whereas earthly shepherds live to meet the needs of their sheep, Jesus laid down his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The final sign is the raising of Lazarus (11:1-44), a man who had been dead for four days. The story graphically brings out Jesus’ power over death and his readiness to confer the gift of life. Jesus speaks of himself as “the resurrection and the life” (v 25); death cannot defeat him. He brings life to the dead, to the spiritually dead as well as to physically dead Lazarus. John goes on to note the reaction to this miracle: some believed, but some opposed Jesus (vv 45-57). He includes a notable saying of Caiaphas, the high priest, that one man should die for the people (vv 50-52). Caiaphas was speaking as a cynical politician (better one dead, however innocent, than the whole nation be troubled). But John saw in the words the deeper meaning that Jesus’ death would bring salvation to many.<\/p>\n<p>John rounds off his account of the ministry with the story of the anointing of Jesus by a woman in Bethany, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the coming of some Greeks to Jesus, and his final summary of what he had taught (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Last Supper<\/h5>\n<p>The account of what went on in the upper room on the night before the Crucifixion is the fullest of all the four Gospels. Curiously, John says nothing about the institution of Communion, a fact that has never been satisfactorily explained. But he tells us how Jesus washed the feet of the disciples (13:1-17), an action splendidly exemplifying the spirit of lowly service so soon to be shown on the cross. Then comes the prophecy of the betrayal, an action that set in motion the events that would lead to the cross (vv 18-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the long discourse that follows, Jesus dealt with some questions posed by his followers and went on to teach them some important truths, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life (14:6). He develops the thought that he is the true vine, the disciples being vitally joined to him as branches to the vine. It is important for the branches to remain in the vine if they are to have life (15:1-16). Then come some words about suffering that would be of help to them in times of persecution (vv 17-25). Jesus goes on to speak about the Holy Spirit (15:26–16:15). This is a very important passage, for it contains much more about the Spirit than we find elsewhere in Jesus’ words. Jesus calls the Spirit the “Paraclete,” a title not easy to understand. It is in origin a legal term, and at least we can say that it indicates that the Spirit brings friendship, encouragement, and help. Jesus went on to speak of his approaching departure from the disciples and to prepare them for the trying time ahead (16:16-33). This part of the Gospel concludes with Jesus’ great High Priestly prayer. He prayed for the disciples to be one, as he commended them to the care of the heavenly Father (ch 17).<\/p>\n<h5>The Cross and Resurrection<\/h5>\n<p>When the soldiers came to arrest Jesus, he went forward to meet them and they fell to the ground (18:1-11). He gave himself over to them; they did not take him over. At the outset of his passion narrative, John was making the point that Jesus is sovereign. He was not being defeated by the march of events but was sovereignly doing the will of the Father. John is the only one to tell us that Jesus was taken before Annas, father-in-law to Caiaphas, the reigning high priest (18:12-14, 19-24). He tells also of Peter’s three denials of Jesus (vv 15-27). He did not spend much time on the Jewish trial, but he was much more explicit than the other Evangelists in his account of the Roman trial. Clearly, he had some special knowledge of what went on before Pilate. He presents a magnificent picture of Jesus talking with Pilate about kingship—the Son of God discussing with the representative of Caesar the meaning of sovereignty (vv 33-40).<\/p>\n<p>In his account of the Crucifixion John has a number of touches of his own, notably the way Jesus commended Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (19:26-27), the fact that the cry Jesus uttered as he died was “It is finished” (v 30), and the piercing of his side by a soldier’s spear (vv 31-37).<\/p>\n<p>John proceeds to the narrative of the burial (vv 38-42) and of the empty tomb (20:1-10). He speaks of appearances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene (vv 11-18), and to the disciples—both without (vv 19-23) and with Thomas (vv 24-29).<\/p>\n<p>The final chapter, an epilogue, tells of a miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14) and goes on to the moving account of Peter’s threefold declaration of love to Jesus and his restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","summary_en":"JOHN, Gospel of The fourth Gospel. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author At the end of this Gospel we are told that it was written by “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:20, 24), but unfortunately the book nowhere tells us who this disciple was. Evidence shows that the most probable identification is with the apostle John. He fills the place we would have expected John to fill from what we know from the other Gospe...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","summary_en":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56676,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","summary_en":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","summary_en":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","summary_en":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","summary_en":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111928,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","summary_en":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139553,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16-33<\/strong> <em>a little while:<\/em> This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","summary_en":"16:16-33 a little while: This refrain reassured the disciples that their separation from Jesus would be short-lived.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139554,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:16","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:16<\/strong> Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him <em>again<\/em><em>,<\/em> the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","summary_en":"16:16 Jesus reassured the disciples that his departure (on the cross) would be short and his return (in the resurrection) would be soon. When they saw him again, the disciples would experience overwhelming joy and intimacy with him in the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66127,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93753,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121379,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149005,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":56677,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","summary_en":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","summary_en":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","summary_en":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139555,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:20","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:20<\/strong> At the crucifixion, <em>the world<\/em> thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to <em>weep and mourn<\/em><em>,<\/em> but their sorrow would change to <em>joy<\/em> when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","summary_en":"16:20 At the crucifixion, the world thought it had won a victory over the light. The shock of the cross would cause the disciples to weep and mourn, but their sorrow would change to joy when Jesus defeated the grave (20:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67417,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95043,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122669,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150295,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":37682,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribulation","title_en":"Tribulation","content_ro":"<h3>TRIBULATION<\/h3>\n<p>An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childbirth (Jn 16:21), the worldly concerns that arise in marriage (1 Cor 7:28), and the affliction of widows (Jas 1:27) are all called tribulation. In a more general way, a scourge like the famine that afflicted Egypt and Canaan during the patriarchal age is characterized as “great tribulation” (Acts 7:11).<\/p>\n<p>In a more narrow sense, the word “tribulation” refers to a specific Christian experience. The teachings of Christ provide basic definitions for this meaning of “tribulation.” He said that whenever the gospel is present in the world, tribulation becomes its unavoidable corollary. As the word of the gospel is sown, tribulation and persecution appear spontaneously (Mt 13:21).<\/p>\n<p>This concept of the ineluctable presence of tribulation during the church age is carefully developed in Jesus’ teaching on future events in the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). This discourse provides the only explicit description of, and clear chronological reference available in the Bible to, the tribulation of his followers. In it, Jesus predicted the time of the beginning, the extent, and the end of tribulation. This teaching on the tribulation was handed down to the 12 disciples privately, as a matter directly relevant to their lives (Mt 24:3). Jesus told the Twelve that they would be delivered up to tribulation and that this tribulation would take the form of persecution to the death for his name’s sake (v 9). The context of this teaching indicates that the tribulation taught by Jesus would affect Christians in many places throughout history. But the fact that Jesus predicted to the 12 disciples that they would fall victim to the tribulation, at the very beginning of the sufferings (v 8), provides a clear reference to the starting point of the tribulation during the disciples’ lifetimes.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the same group of disciples were to be witnesses of the “great tribulation” that would befall Jerusalem as predicted by the prophet Daniel (Mt 24:15-21). It is clear that, in the Olivet discourse, Jesus was referring to the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Roman legions was to be viewed as an archetypal representation of the perennial tribulation. This is attested to by Matthew’s parenthetical editorial comment in 24:15 (“let the reader understand”), intended to alert his original readers to the fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction within their lifetimes. Moreover, the parallel section in Luke 21:20-24 makes it clear that the desolation of Jewish Jerusalem would be followed by a long period of gentile domination, which is precisely what happened after <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The NT forewarns believers of the inevitability of tribulation; it also prescribes the appropriate response of Christians. They should rejoice because tribulation produces perseverance and strength of character (Rom 5:3-4). They should bear it patiently (12:12), knowing that God comforts the faithful in all tribulations (2 Cor 1:4) and that the present tribulation prepares believers for incomparable glory in eternity (2 Cor 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>Except for rare and exceptional circumstances that enable Christians to enjoy affluence and freedom, most believers throughout history have suffered tribulation. The normal vocation of the church has been to endure as a beleaguered and persecuted minority in a hostile world. For Christians providentially protected from tribulation, it is easy to relegate tribulation to a future period in history. For Christians suffering in the throes of opposition, however, the tribulation is an ever-present reality. The virulence and the severity of the tribulation may vary from time to time and from place to place, yet Christ’s promise remains true, “In the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world” (Jn 16:33, <span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Suffering; Eschatology; Persecution.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRIBULATION<\/h3>\n<p>An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childbirth (Jn 16:21), the worldly concerns that arise in marriage (1 Cor 7:28), and the affliction of widows (Jas 1:27) are all called tribulation. In a more general way, a scourge like the famine that afflicted Egypt and Canaan during the patriarchal age is characterized as “great tribulation” (Acts 7:11).<\/p>\n<p>In a more narrow sense, the word “tribulation” refers to a specific Christian experience. The teachings of Christ provide basic definitions for this meaning of “tribulation.” He said that whenever the gospel is present in the world, tribulation becomes its unavoidable corollary. As the word of the gospel is sown, tribulation and persecution appear spontaneously (Mt 13:21).<\/p>\n<p>This concept of the ineluctable presence of tribulation during the church age is carefully developed in Jesus’ teaching on future events in the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). This discourse provides the only explicit description of, and clear chronological reference available in the Bible to, the tribulation of his followers. In it, Jesus predicted the time of the beginning, the extent, and the end of tribulation. This teaching on the tribulation was handed down to the 12 disciples privately, as a matter directly relevant to their lives (Mt 24:3). Jesus told the Twelve that they would be delivered up to tribulation and that this tribulation would take the form of persecution to the death for his name’s sake (v 9). The context of this teaching indicates that the tribulation taught by Jesus would affect Christians in many places throughout history. But the fact that Jesus predicted to the 12 disciples that they would fall victim to the tribulation, at the very beginning of the sufferings (v 8), provides a clear reference to the starting point of the tribulation during the disciples’ lifetimes.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the same group of disciples were to be witnesses of the “great tribulation” that would befall Jerusalem as predicted by the prophet Daniel (Mt 24:15-21). It is clear that, in the Olivet discourse, Jesus was referring to the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Roman legions was to be viewed as an archetypal representation of the perennial tribulation. This is attested to by Matthew’s parenthetical editorial comment in 24:15 (“let the reader understand”), intended to alert his original readers to the fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction within their lifetimes. Moreover, the parallel section in Luke 21:20-24 makes it clear that the desolation of Jewish Jerusalem would be followed by a long period of gentile domination, which is precisely what happened after <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The NT forewarns believers of the inevitability of tribulation; it also prescribes the appropriate response of Christians. They should rejoice because tribulation produces perseverance and strength of character (Rom 5:3-4). They should bear it patiently (12:12), knowing that God comforts the faithful in all tribulations (2 Cor 1:4) and that the present tribulation prepares believers for incomparable glory in eternity (2 Cor 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>Except for rare and exceptional circumstances that enable Christians to enjoy affluence and freedom, most believers throughout history have suffered tribulation. The normal vocation of the church has been to endure as a beleaguered and persecuted minority in a hostile world. For Christians providentially protected from tribulation, it is easy to relegate tribulation to a future period in history. For Christians suffering in the throes of opposition, however, the tribulation is an ever-present reality. The virulence and the severity of the tribulation may vary from time to time and from place to place, yet Christ’s promise remains true, “In the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world” (Jn 16:33, <span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Suffering; Eschatology; Persecution.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRIBULATION An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation. The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childb...","summary_en":"TRIBULATION An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation. The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childb...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38670,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"World","title_en":"World","content_ro":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","summary_en":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56678,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:21","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","summary_en":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:21","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","summary_en":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:21","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","summary_en":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139556,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:21","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:21<\/strong> <em>the pains of labor:<\/em> This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","summary_en":"16:21 the pains of labor: This metaphor symbolizes anguish that is followed by God’s blessing and wonder (cp. Isa 21:2-3; 26:16-21; 66:7-10; Jer 13:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":15683,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heart","title_en":"Heart","content_ro":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","summary_en":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":31141,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prayer","title_en":"Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","summary_en":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56679,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:23","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","summary_en":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:23","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","summary_en":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:23","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","summary_en":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139557,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:23","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> <em>Ask . . . and you will receive:<\/em> Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","summary_en":"16:23-24 Ask . . . and you will receive: Two notable effects of the resurrection are the joy of understanding and the joy of successful prayer. The disciples would no longer experience the confusion described in 16:16-18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":67425,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95051,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122677,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150303,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\n<p>In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\n<p>Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":56680,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","summary_en":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","summary_en":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","summary_en":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139558,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:25","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:25","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:25<\/strong> Jesus spoke using <em>figures of speech<\/em><em>,<\/em> which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","summary_en":"16:25 Jesus spoke using figures of speech, which could only be interpreted with God’s help (1 Cor 1:18-25). With the coming of the Spirit, the disciples would understand.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60878,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant Love","title_en":"God’s Covenant Love","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88504,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant Love","title_en":"God’s Covenant Love","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116130,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant Love","title_en":"God’s Covenant Love","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143756,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant Love","title_en":"God’s Covenant Love","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant Love<\/h3>\n<p>Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection in exchange for their loyal service. Similarly, God chose Israel to be his servant nation not because the Israelites deserved it but because he loved them (Deut 7:6-11). Put another way, he loved them because he had chosen them. The strongest affirmation of God’s love-choice can be found in Malachi 1:2-3: God chose Jacob but rejected Esau (see also Rom 9:13-26).<\/p>\n<p>The special covenantal relationship that God had with Israel was extended to include both Jews and Gentiles through Jesus Christ (Acts 10:1–11:18; Eph 2:11-22). This new covenant was established through the ultimate demonstration of God’s love in the suffering and death of his son (Luke 22:20; John 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:6-11; 33:3; Isa 49:14-18; Hos 11:1-11; Mal 1:2-3; Matt 3:16-17; Luke 15:1-32; John 3:16; 16:25-27; Rom 5:6-8; 9:13-26; Eph 1:4; 2:4-7; Heb 12:6-11; 1 Jn 3:1; 4:8-9, 16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant Love Often in the Bible, God’s love is understood in the ordinary sense that God has strongly affectionate feelings toward humankind. In certain contexts, however, such as the covenant document of Deuteronomy, love refers to God’s commitment to his people. In the ancient Near East, a conquering king would characteristically speak of his relationship to vassal peoples in terms of love, meaning that he had chosen those people to enjoy his favor and to benefit from his protection ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":56681,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","summary_en":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","summary_en":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","summary_en":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139559,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:26","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:26","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text -1v -10\"><strong>16:26-27<\/strong> After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to <em>ask the Father<\/em> to meet their needs. (14:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","summary_en":"16:26-27 After Jesus’ resurrection, the Spirit brought intimacy, allowing individual disciples to ask the Father to meet their needs. (14:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":23592,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Love","title_en":"Love","content_ro":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","summary_en":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":66128,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93754,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121380,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149006,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>The ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":29384,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Peace","title_en":"Peace","content_ro":"<h3>PEACE<\/h3>\n<p>Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of connotations (wholeness, health, security, well-being, and salvation) and could apply to an equally wide range of contexts: the state of the individual (Ps 37:37; Prv 3:2; Is 32:17), the relationship of person to person (Gn 34:21; Jos 9:15) or nation to nation (e.g., absence of conflict—Dt 2:26; Jos 10:21; 1 Kgs 5:12; Ps 122:6-7), and the relationship of God and people (Ps 85:8; Jer 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>The presence of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> in any of these contexts was not considered ultimately as the outcome of human endeavor but as a gift or blessing of God (Lv 26:6; 1 Kgs 2:33; Jb 25:2; Pss 29:11; 85:8; Is 45:7). It is not surprising, therefore, to find “peace” tied closely to the OT notion of covenant. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> was the desired state of harmony and communion between the two covenant partners—God and his people (Nm 6:26; cf. Is 54:10). Its presence signified God’s blessing in the covenant relationship (Mal 2:5; cf. Nm 25:12), and its absence signified the breakdown of that relationship due to Israel’s disobedience and unrighteousness (Jer 16:5, 10-13; cf. Ps 85:9-11; Is 32:17).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> becomes a pivotal term in the prophetic writings. It was the “false” prophets who, forgetting the conditions for national well-being within the covenant relationship, assumed God’s loyalty to Israel (Ps 89) would guarantee political peace forever (Jer 6:14; 8:15; Ez 13:10, 16; Mi 3:5). Against such popular but false security, the preexilic prophets proclaimed the coming judgment precisely as a loss of this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> due to Israel’s persistent disobedience and unrighteousness (Is 48:18; Jer 14:13-16; 16:5, 10-13; 28; Mi 3:4, 9-12).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets did, however, point beyond the crises of exile and subsequent setbacks to a time when <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> characterized by prosperity and well-being (Is 45:7; Ez 34:25-26), absence of conflict (Is 2:2-4; 32:15-20; Ez 34:28-31), right relations (Is 11:1-5; Mi 4:1-4; Zec 8:9-13), restoration of harmony in nature (Is 11:6-9; Ez 47:1-12), and salvation (Is 52:7; 60:17; Ez 34:30-31; 37:26-28) would again return. Often this eschatological (or end-time) expectation of peace in the OT was associated with a messianic figure, as in Isaiah 9:6, where the future Messiah is termed the “Prince of Peace.” Moreover, his reign would be one of “peace” not only for Israel but throughout the whole earth (Zec 9:9-10). The OT ends with this hope of peace still unrealized in its full sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Greek term for “peace” used predominantly in the NT is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span><em>,<\/em> a word expanded from its classical Greek connotation of “rest” to include the various connotations of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> discussed above. As with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span> could be used as a greeting or farewell (as in “peace be with you”—Lk 10:5; Gal 6:16; Jas 2:16; cf. Jn 20:19), or could signify the cessation of conflict (national—Lk 14:32; Acts 12:20; or interpersonal—Rom 14:19; Eph 4:3), or the presence of domestic tranquillity (cf. 1 Cor 7:15).<\/p>\n<p>The chief issue concerns how Jesus incorporated the OT hope for the eschatological peace of God into his ministry. In the “benedictus” of Zechariah (Lk 1:67-79), the coming of Jesus as the Messiah is expected to “guide our feet into the way of peace” (v 79). So also the angelic testimony to the shepherds proclaims Jesus as the bringer of God’s peace to people (2:14). That is, Jesus as the Messiah would usher in God’s reign of peace. Jesus’ self-understanding as expressed in the fourth Gospel corresponds to this association. This long-expected peace of God is Jesus’ farewell gift to the disciples (Jn 14:27); it is given to them when he breathed his Spirit into them (20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The nature of this gift of peace brought by Jesus may be easier to explain by stating what it is not. It is not an end to tension or the absence of warfare. It is not domestic tranquillity nor anything like the worldly estimation of peace (Lk 12:51-53; Jn 14:27; 16:32-33). Its presence may, on the contrary, actually disturb existing relations, being a dividing “sword” in familial relations (Mt 10:34-37). Jesus’ gift of peace is, in reality, the character and mood of the new covenant of his blood that reconciles God to people (Rom 5:1; Col 1:20) and forms the basis of subsequent reconciliation between divergent people (Eph 2:14-22).<\/p>\n<p>The early church understood “peace” to be the final, end-time salvation of God given already through Jesus Christ (cf. Phil 4:7-9). This understanding of “peace” altered the content of the common greeting “go in peace” as it was taken up in the Christian community. In Paul’s common “grace and peace” greeting (1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2, etc.; cf. also 1 Pt 1:2; 2 Jn 1:3; Jude 1:2; Rv 1:4), it is no longer a mere wish for peace that Paul extends to his readers but is a reminder of the messianic gifts available in the present time through Christ to the man of faith. In accord with this, Jesus is described as “peace” itself (Eph 2:14), while God, too, because of his act of reconciliation through Christ, is known as a “God of peace” (Phil 4:9; Col 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>This gift of peace or reconciliation with God, made available through Christ, places an ethical demand on the Christian; it calls for the exercises of “peace” (as reconciliation between persons) within the church. Peace, as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), is to be the goal of the Christian’s dealings with others (Rom 12:18; 14:19; Heb 12:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEACE<\/h3>\n<p>Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of connotations (wholeness, health, security, well-being, and salvation) and could apply to an equally wide range of contexts: the state of the individual (Ps 37:37; Prv 3:2; Is 32:17), the relationship of person to person (Gn 34:21; Jos 9:15) or nation to nation (e.g., absence of conflict—Dt 2:26; Jos 10:21; 1 Kgs 5:12; Ps 122:6-7), and the relationship of God and people (Ps 85:8; Jer 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>The presence of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> in any of these contexts was not considered ultimately as the outcome of human endeavor but as a gift or blessing of God (Lv 26:6; 1 Kgs 2:33; Jb 25:2; Pss 29:11; 85:8; Is 45:7). It is not surprising, therefore, to find “peace” tied closely to the OT notion of covenant. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> was the desired state of harmony and communion between the two covenant partners—God and his people (Nm 6:26; cf. Is 54:10). Its presence signified God’s blessing in the covenant relationship (Mal 2:5; cf. Nm 25:12), and its absence signified the breakdown of that relationship due to Israel’s disobedience and unrighteousness (Jer 16:5, 10-13; cf. Ps 85:9-11; Is 32:17).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> becomes a pivotal term in the prophetic writings. It was the “false” prophets who, forgetting the conditions for national well-being within the covenant relationship, assumed God’s loyalty to Israel (Ps 89) would guarantee political peace forever (Jer 6:14; 8:15; Ez 13:10, 16; Mi 3:5). Against such popular but false security, the preexilic prophets proclaimed the coming judgment precisely as a loss of this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> due to Israel’s persistent disobedience and unrighteousness (Is 48:18; Jer 14:13-16; 16:5, 10-13; 28; Mi 3:4, 9-12).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets did, however, point beyond the crises of exile and subsequent setbacks to a time when <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> characterized by prosperity and well-being (Is 45:7; Ez 34:25-26), absence of conflict (Is 2:2-4; 32:15-20; Ez 34:28-31), right relations (Is 11:1-5; Mi 4:1-4; Zec 8:9-13), restoration of harmony in nature (Is 11:6-9; Ez 47:1-12), and salvation (Is 52:7; 60:17; Ez 34:30-31; 37:26-28) would again return. Often this eschatological (or end-time) expectation of peace in the OT was associated with a messianic figure, as in Isaiah 9:6, where the future Messiah is termed the “Prince of Peace.” Moreover, his reign would be one of “peace” not only for Israel but throughout the whole earth (Zec 9:9-10). The OT ends with this hope of peace still unrealized in its full sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Greek term for “peace” used predominantly in the NT is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span><em>,<\/em> a word expanded from its classical Greek connotation of “rest” to include the various connotations of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> discussed above. As with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span> could be used as a greeting or farewell (as in “peace be with you”—Lk 10:5; Gal 6:16; Jas 2:16; cf. Jn 20:19), or could signify the cessation of conflict (national—Lk 14:32; Acts 12:20; or interpersonal—Rom 14:19; Eph 4:3), or the presence of domestic tranquillity (cf. 1 Cor 7:15).<\/p>\n<p>The chief issue concerns how Jesus incorporated the OT hope for the eschatological peace of God into his ministry. In the “benedictus” of Zechariah (Lk 1:67-79), the coming of Jesus as the Messiah is expected to “guide our feet into the way of peace” (v 79). So also the angelic testimony to the shepherds proclaims Jesus as the bringer of God’s peace to people (2:14). That is, Jesus as the Messiah would usher in God’s reign of peace. Jesus’ self-understanding as expressed in the fourth Gospel corresponds to this association. This long-expected peace of God is Jesus’ farewell gift to the disciples (Jn 14:27); it is given to them when he breathed his Spirit into them (20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The nature of this gift of peace brought by Jesus may be easier to explain by stating what it is not. It is not an end to tension or the absence of warfare. It is not domestic tranquillity nor anything like the worldly estimation of peace (Lk 12:51-53; Jn 14:27; 16:32-33). Its presence may, on the contrary, actually disturb existing relations, being a dividing “sword” in familial relations (Mt 10:34-37). Jesus’ gift of peace is, in reality, the character and mood of the new covenant of his blood that reconciles God to people (Rom 5:1; Col 1:20) and forms the basis of subsequent reconciliation between divergent people (Eph 2:14-22).<\/p>\n<p>The early church understood “peace” to be the final, end-time salvation of God given already through Jesus Christ (cf. Phil 4:7-9). This understanding of “peace” altered the content of the common greeting “go in peace” as it was taken up in the Christian community. In Paul’s common “grace and peace” greeting (1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2, etc.; cf. also 1 Pt 1:2; 2 Jn 1:3; Jude 1:2; Rv 1:4), it is no longer a mere wish for peace that Paul extends to his readers but is a reminder of the messianic gifts available in the present time through Christ to the man of faith. In accord with this, Jesus is described as “peace” itself (Eph 2:14), while God, too, because of his act of reconciliation through Christ, is known as a “God of peace” (Phil 4:9; Col 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>This gift of peace or reconciliation with God, made available through Christ, places an ethical demand on the Christian; it calls for the exercises of “peace” (as reconciliation between persons) within the church. Peace, as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), is to be the goal of the Christian’s dealings with others (Rom 12:18; 14:19; Heb 12:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEACE Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers. In the Old Testament Shalom, the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of conno...","summary_en":"PEACE Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers. In the Old Testament Shalom, the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of conno...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":36428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Suffering","title_en":"Suffering","content_ro":"<h3>SUFFERING<\/h3>\n<p>Anything causing pain or distress; calamity. From the biblical viewpoint, affliction began with the entrance of sin into the world. Both mankind and all creation were afflicted with “thorns and thistles,” sin, death, and decay (cf. Gn 3:16-19; Rom 8:18-21). Because of sin, misery is a common human experience, and our short life is full of trouble (Jb 14:1-6). It is impossible for human beings to avoid natural calamity, physical injury, and interpersonal conflict (2 Chr 20:9), yet God uses affliction to instruct and discipline his people. This aspect of affliction is graphically portrayed by the oppression during the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt (Ex 4:31), by their troubles during the period of the judges (Neh 9:26-27), and by their exile in Babylon (Is 26:16). In Israel’s distress they cried out to God, who delivered them and led them into obedience (Jer 10:18; Hos 5:15–6:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible acknowledges that it is difficult to understand the many afflictions of the righteous (Pss 34:19; 37:39; 138:7). Even the prophet and “Servant of the Lord” (Messiah) were not spared (Is 53:2-12; Jer 15:15). Jesus Christ bore the griefs and sorrows of humanity as the culmination of the affliction begun by Adam’s sin (Is 53:4-5; 1 Pt 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus indicated that there would be many trials and sorrows for his followers (Jn 16:33). Paul taught that entrance to the kingdom of God comes with many tribulations (Acts 14:22), which must not shake a Christian’s faith (1 Thes 3:3). They are to be understood rather as a finishing up of the remainder of Christ’s suffering for his body, the church (2 Cor 4:10-11; Col 1:24). The biblical picture indicates that affliction will grow more intense as “the end” approaches (Mt 24:9-14; 2 Tm 3:13). The forces of Satan will attack in an effort to deceive and destroy the “elect” (Mt 24:24; 2 Thes 2:9-12; Rv 20:7-9). But when Jesus Christ is revealed from heaven in flaming fire, God will afflict those who have afflicted believers and will bring vengeance upon those who have not obeyed the gospel of Jesus Christ (Rom 2:9; 2 Thes 1:5-10; 2:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Persecution; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SUFFERING<\/h3>\n<p>Anything causing pain or distress; calamity. From the biblical viewpoint, affliction began with the entrance of sin into the world. Both mankind and all creation were afflicted with “thorns and thistles,” sin, death, and decay (cf. Gn 3:16-19; Rom 8:18-21). Because of sin, misery is a common human experience, and our short life is full of trouble (Jb 14:1-6). It is impossible for human beings to avoid natural calamity, physical injury, and interpersonal conflict (2 Chr 20:9), yet God uses affliction to instruct and discipline his people. This aspect of affliction is graphically portrayed by the oppression during the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt (Ex 4:31), by their troubles during the period of the judges (Neh 9:26-27), and by their exile in Babylon (Is 26:16). In Israel’s distress they cried out to God, who delivered them and led them into obedience (Jer 10:18; Hos 5:15–6:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible acknowledges that it is difficult to understand the many afflictions of the righteous (Pss 34:19; 37:39; 138:7). Even the prophet and “Servant of the Lord” (Messiah) were not spared (Is 53:2-12; Jer 15:15). Jesus Christ bore the griefs and sorrows of humanity as the culmination of the affliction begun by Adam’s sin (Is 53:4-5; 1 Pt 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus indicated that there would be many trials and sorrows for his followers (Jn 16:33). Paul taught that entrance to the kingdom of God comes with many tribulations (Acts 14:22), which must not shake a Christian’s faith (1 Thes 3:3). They are to be understood rather as a finishing up of the remainder of Christ’s suffering for his body, the church (2 Cor 4:10-11; Col 1:24). The biblical picture indicates that affliction will grow more intense as “the end” approaches (Mt 24:9-14; 2 Tm 3:13). The forces of Satan will attack in an effort to deceive and destroy the “elect” (Mt 24:24; 2 Thes 2:9-12; Rv 20:7-9). But when Jesus Christ is revealed from heaven in flaming fire, God will afflict those who have afflicted believers and will bring vengeance upon those who have not obeyed the gospel of Jesus Christ (Rom 2:9; 2 Thes 1:5-10; 2:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Persecution; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SUFFERING Anything causing pain or distress; calamity. From the biblical viewpoint, affliction began with the entrance of sin into the world. Both mankind and all creation were afflicted with “thorns and thistles,” sin, death, and decay (cf. Gn 3:16-19; Rom 8:18-21). Because of sin, misery is a common human experience, and our short life is full of trouble (Jb 14:1-6). It is impossible for human beings to avoid natural calamity, physical injury, and interpersonal conflict (2 Chr 20:9), yet Go...","summary_en":"SUFFERING Anything causing pain or distress; calamity. From the biblical viewpoint, affliction began with the entrance of sin into the world. Both mankind and all creation were afflicted with “thorns and thistles,” sin, death, and decay (cf. Gn 3:16-19; Rom 8:18-21). Because of sin, misery is a common human experience, and our short life is full of trouble (Jb 14:1-6). It is impossible for human beings to avoid natural calamity, physical injury, and interpersonal conflict (2 Chr 20:9), yet Go...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37699,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribulation","title_en":"Tribulation","content_ro":"<h3>TRIBULATION<\/h3>\n<p>An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childbirth (Jn 16:21), the worldly concerns that arise in marriage (1 Cor 7:28), and the affliction of widows (Jas 1:27) are all called tribulation. In a more general way, a scourge like the famine that afflicted Egypt and Canaan during the patriarchal age is characterized as “great tribulation” (Acts 7:11).<\/p>\n<p>In a more narrow sense, the word “tribulation” refers to a specific Christian experience. The teachings of Christ provide basic definitions for this meaning of “tribulation.” He said that whenever the gospel is present in the world, tribulation becomes its unavoidable corollary. As the word of the gospel is sown, tribulation and persecution appear spontaneously (Mt 13:21).<\/p>\n<p>This concept of the ineluctable presence of tribulation during the church age is carefully developed in Jesus’ teaching on future events in the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). This discourse provides the only explicit description of, and clear chronological reference available in the Bible to, the tribulation of his followers. In it, Jesus predicted the time of the beginning, the extent, and the end of tribulation. This teaching on the tribulation was handed down to the 12 disciples privately, as a matter directly relevant to their lives (Mt 24:3). Jesus told the Twelve that they would be delivered up to tribulation and that this tribulation would take the form of persecution to the death for his name’s sake (v 9). The context of this teaching indicates that the tribulation taught by Jesus would affect Christians in many places throughout history. But the fact that Jesus predicted to the 12 disciples that they would fall victim to the tribulation, at the very beginning of the sufferings (v 8), provides a clear reference to the starting point of the tribulation during the disciples’ lifetimes.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the same group of disciples were to be witnesses of the “great tribulation” that would befall Jerusalem as predicted by the prophet Daniel (Mt 24:15-21). It is clear that, in the Olivet discourse, Jesus was referring to the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Roman legions was to be viewed as an archetypal representation of the perennial tribulation. This is attested to by Matthew’s parenthetical editorial comment in 24:15 (“let the reader understand”), intended to alert his original readers to the fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction within their lifetimes. Moreover, the parallel section in Luke 21:20-24 makes it clear that the desolation of Jewish Jerusalem would be followed by a long period of gentile domination, which is precisely what happened after <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The NT forewarns believers of the inevitability of tribulation; it also prescribes the appropriate response of Christians. They should rejoice because tribulation produces perseverance and strength of character (Rom 5:3-4). They should bear it patiently (12:12), knowing that God comforts the faithful in all tribulations (2 Cor 1:4) and that the present tribulation prepares believers for incomparable glory in eternity (2 Cor 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>Except for rare and exceptional circumstances that enable Christians to enjoy affluence and freedom, most believers throughout history have suffered tribulation. The normal vocation of the church has been to endure as a beleaguered and persecuted minority in a hostile world. For Christians providentially protected from tribulation, it is easy to relegate tribulation to a future period in history. For Christians suffering in the throes of opposition, however, the tribulation is an ever-present reality. The virulence and the severity of the tribulation may vary from time to time and from place to place, yet Christ’s promise remains true, “In the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world” (Jn 16:33, <span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Suffering; Eschatology; Persecution.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRIBULATION<\/h3>\n<p>An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childbirth (Jn 16:21), the worldly concerns that arise in marriage (1 Cor 7:28), and the affliction of widows (Jas 1:27) are all called tribulation. In a more general way, a scourge like the famine that afflicted Egypt and Canaan during the patriarchal age is characterized as “great tribulation” (Acts 7:11).<\/p>\n<p>In a more narrow sense, the word “tribulation” refers to a specific Christian experience. The teachings of Christ provide basic definitions for this meaning of “tribulation.” He said that whenever the gospel is present in the world, tribulation becomes its unavoidable corollary. As the word of the gospel is sown, tribulation and persecution appear spontaneously (Mt 13:21).<\/p>\n<p>This concept of the ineluctable presence of tribulation during the church age is carefully developed in Jesus’ teaching on future events in the Olivet discourse (Mt 24–25; Mk 13; Lk 21). This discourse provides the only explicit description of, and clear chronological reference available in the Bible to, the tribulation of his followers. In it, Jesus predicted the time of the beginning, the extent, and the end of tribulation. This teaching on the tribulation was handed down to the 12 disciples privately, as a matter directly relevant to their lives (Mt 24:3). Jesus told the Twelve that they would be delivered up to tribulation and that this tribulation would take the form of persecution to the death for his name’s sake (v 9). The context of this teaching indicates that the tribulation taught by Jesus would affect Christians in many places throughout history. But the fact that Jesus predicted to the 12 disciples that they would fall victim to the tribulation, at the very beginning of the sufferings (v 8), provides a clear reference to the starting point of the tribulation during the disciples’ lifetimes.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the same group of disciples were to be witnesses of the “great tribulation” that would befall Jerusalem as predicted by the prophet Daniel (Mt 24:15-21). It is clear that, in the Olivet discourse, Jesus was referring to the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70. The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Roman legions was to be viewed as an archetypal representation of the perennial tribulation. This is attested to by Matthew’s parenthetical editorial comment in 24:15 (“let the reader understand”), intended to alert his original readers to the fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction within their lifetimes. Moreover, the parallel section in Luke 21:20-24 makes it clear that the desolation of Jewish Jerusalem would be followed by a long period of gentile domination, which is precisely what happened after <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The NT forewarns believers of the inevitability of tribulation; it also prescribes the appropriate response of Christians. They should rejoice because tribulation produces perseverance and strength of character (Rom 5:3-4). They should bear it patiently (12:12), knowing that God comforts the faithful in all tribulations (2 Cor 1:4) and that the present tribulation prepares believers for incomparable glory in eternity (2 Cor 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>Except for rare and exceptional circumstances that enable Christians to enjoy affluence and freedom, most believers throughout history have suffered tribulation. The normal vocation of the church has been to endure as a beleaguered and persecuted minority in a hostile world. For Christians providentially protected from tribulation, it is easy to relegate tribulation to a future period in history. For Christians suffering in the throes of opposition, however, the tribulation is an ever-present reality. The virulence and the severity of the tribulation may vary from time to time and from place to place, yet Christ’s promise remains true, “In the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world” (Jn 16:33, <span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Suffering; Eschatology; Persecution.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRIBULATION An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation. The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childb...","summary_en":"TRIBULATION An experience of suffering, distress, affliction, trouble, or persecution. The Greek word appears in the NT about 45 times. There is a Hebrew equivalent that appears in four or five OT passages, never in the prophetic books. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus mainly on the NT for a definition of tribulation. The NT contains a few references where the word “tribulation” is used to denote the hardships that occur in the lives of common people. The labor pains of a woman in childb...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38700,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"World","title_en":"World","content_ro":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORLD<\/h3>\n<p>An important NT term from the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings:<\/p>\n<p>1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24).<\/p>\n<li>2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. The total of human existence in this present life, with all of its experience and possessions (Mt 16:26; 1 Cor 7:33).<\/li>\n<li>5. The world order as alienated from God, in rebellion against him, and condemned for its godlessness. It is “this world” (Jn 8:23; 12:25; 1 Cor 3:19), as opposed to “that which is to come.” The ruler of this world is the devil (Jn 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 Cor 5:10)—as John said it, “The whole world is under the control of the evil one” (1 Jn 5:19, <span>niv<\/span>). Christians are not of this world (Jn 15:19; 17:16), even though they live in the world and participate in its activities (17:11). The believer is regarded as dead to the world (Gal 6:14; cf. Col 3:2-3). The Christian is to be separated from the world (Jas 1:27).<\/li>\n<p>One’s relationship with the world is an indicator of one’s relationship with God. Those who love the world are void of love for God the Father (1 Jn 2:15). The Scripture points out that “all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of the Father but is of the world” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The world and its desires or lusts are transient, passing away, but the doer of God’s word abides forever (1 Jn 2:17; cf. 2 Cor 4:18). Friendship with the world is enmity toward God (Jas 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>The discourse of Jesus on the night before his crucifixion contains much teaching about the world. The world cannot receive the Spirit of truth (Jn 14:17). Christ gives a peace that the world cannot give (v 27). Jesus offers love, while the world gives hatred and persecution (15:19-20). The world’s hatred of God is also directed against the followers of Christ (vv 18-21). Although the disciples of Jesus have tribulation “in this world,” they are to be of good cheer, for Jesus has overcome the world (16:33).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word sometimes translated “world” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aion<\/span><em>,<\/em> which emphasizes the temporal aspect of the world. It is used of time without end, eternity (e.g., Rom 1:25; 2 Cor 11:31; Phil 4:20). <em>See<\/em> Age.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","summary_en":"WORLD An important NT term from the Greek word kosmos (meaning that which is ordered or arranged), having five different meanings: 1. The universe created by God with design and order (e.g., Mt 13:35; Jn 17:24; Acts 17:24). 2. The planet earth (e.g., Jn 11:9). This includes the idea of earth as the dwelling place of human beings (16:21) and of earth as contrasted with heaven (6:14; 12:46). 3. The total of humanity (Mt 5:14; Jn 3:16; 1 Cor 4:13). 4. The total of human existence in this present...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":56682,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:33","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:33","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","summary_en":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:33","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:33","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","summary_en":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":111934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:33","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:33","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","summary_en":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139560,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ioan 16:33","title_en":"Study Note: Ioan 16:33","content_ro":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p class=\"sn-text\" ts=\"sn-text 15\"><strong>16:33<\/strong> <em>But take heart, because I have overcome the world:<\/em> “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","summary_en":"16:33 But take heart, because I have overcome the world: “Such a saying as this is worthy to be carried from Rome to Jerusalem on one’s knees” (Martin Luther). Jesus’ final words did not chastise but brought comfort. Jesus promised peace (14:27) and joy (16:20, 22). Now he added that his disciples can discover peace even when surrounded by threats; they can be tranquil despite those who are hostile to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60174,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66069,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87800,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93695,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115426,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121321,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143052,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148947,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\n<p>God loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}