1
Iosua era bătrân, înaintat în vârstă. Domnul i-a zis atunci: ,,Tu ai îmbătrânit, ai înaintat în vârstă, şi ţara care-ţi mai rămâne de supus este foarte mare.
2
Iată ţara care mai rămâne: toate ţinuturile Filistenilor şi tot ţinutul Gheşuriţilor,
3
dela Şihor, care curge înaintea Egiptului, până la hotarul Ecronului la miazănoapte, ţinut care trebuie socotit drept cananit, şi care este stăpânit de cei cinci domnitori ai Filistenilor: cel din Gaza, cel din Asdod, cel din Ascalon, cel din Gat şi cel din Ecron, şi de Aviţi;
4
începând dela miazăzi, toată ţara Cananiţilor, şi Meara, care este a Sidoniţilor, până la Afec, până la hotarul Amoriţilor;
5
ţara Ghibliţilor şi tot Libanul spre răsăritul soarelui, dela Baal-Gad, la poalele muntelui Hermon, până la intrarea Hamatului;
6
toţi locuitorii de pe munte, dela Liban până la Misrefot-Maim, toţi Sidoniţii. Eu îi voi izgoni dinaintea copiilor lui Israel. Dă numai ţara aceasta de moştenire prin sorţi lui Israel, cum ţi-am poruncit;
7
şi împarte acum ţara aceasta ca moştenire între cele nouă seminţii şi între jumătate din seminţia lui Manase``.
8
Rubeniţii şi Gadiţii, cu cealaltă jumătate din seminţia lui Manase, şi-au primit moştenirea, pe care le-a dat-o Moise de cealaltă parte a Iordanului, la răsărit, cum le-a dat-o Moise, robul Domnului:
9
dela Aroer, care este pe malurile pârâului Arnon, şi dela cetatea care este în mijlocul văii, toată câmpia Medeba, până la Dibon;
10
toate cetăţile lui Sihon, împăratul Amoriţilor, care domnea la Hesbon, până la hotarul copiilor lui Amon;
11
Galaadul, ţinutul Gheşuriţilor şi al Maacatiţilor, tot muntele Hermonului, şi tot Basanul, până la Salca;
12
toată împărăţia lui Og în Basan, care domnea în Aştarot şi în Edrei, şi care era singura rămăşiţă a Refaimiţilor. Moise a bătut pe aceşti împăraţi, şi i-a izgonit.
13
Dar copiii lui Israel n-au izgonit pe Gheşuriţi şi pe Maacatiţi, cari au locuit în mijlocul lui Israel până în ziua de azi.
14
Seminţia lui Levi a fost singura căreia Moise nu i-a dat parte de moştenire; jertfele mistuite de foc înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului lui Israel, aceasta a fost moştenirea lui, cum îi spusese El.
15
Moise dăduse seminţiei fiilor lui Ruben o parte de moştenire, după familiile lor.
16
Ei au avut ca ţinut al lor: dela Aroer, care este pe malurile pârâului Arnon, şi cetatea care este în mijlocul văii, toată câmpia de lângă Medeba,
17
Hesbonul, şi toate cetăţile lui din câmpie, Dibonul, Bamot-Baal, Bet-Baal-Meon,
18
Iahaţ, Chedemot, Mefaat,
19
Chiriataim, Sibma, Ţeret-Haşahar, pe muntele văii,
20
Bet-Peor, poalele muntelui Pisga, Bet-Ieşimot,
21
toate cetăţile câmpiei, şi toată împărăţia lui Sihon, împăratul Amoriţilor, care domnea la Hesbon: Moise îl bătuse, pe el şi pe domnitorii Madianului, pe Evi, Rechem, Ţur, Hur şi Reba, domnitori cari se trăgeau din Sihon, şi cari locuiau în ţară.
22
Între cei pe cari i-au ucis copiii lui Israel, nimiciseră cu sabia şi pe ghicitorul Balaam, fiul lui Beor.
23
Hotarul ţinutului fiilor lui Ruben era Iordanul. Aceasta este moştenirea fiilor lui Ruben, după familiile lor: cetăţile şi satele lor.
24
Moise dăduse seminţiei lui Gad, fiilor lui Gad, o parte de moştenire, după familiile lor.
25
Ţinutul lor a fost Iaezerul, toate cetăţile Galaadului, jumătate din ţara copiilor lui Amon până la Aroer, faţă în faţă cu Raba,
26
dela Hesbon până la Ramat-Miţpe şi Betonim, dela Mahanaim până la hotarul Debirului,
27
şi, în vale, Bet-Haram, Bet-Nimra, Sucot şi Ţafon, rămăşiţă din împărăţia lui Sihon, împăratul Hesbonului, având ca hotar Iordanul până la marginea mării Chineret, de cealaltă parte a Iordanului, la răsărit.
28
Aceasta este moştenirea fiilor lui Gad, după familiile lor: cetăţile şi satele lor.
29
Moise dăduse la jumătate din seminţia lui Manase, fiilor lui Manase, o parte de moştenire după familiile lor.
30
Ţinutul lor a fost: dela Mahanaim, tot Basanul, toată împărăţia lui Og, împăratul Basanului, şi toate târguşoarele lui Iair în Basan, şasezeci de cetăţi.
31
Jumătate din Galaad, Aştarot şi Edrei, cetăţi din împărăţia lui Og, în Basan, au căzut fiilor lui Machir, fiul lui Manase, adică la jumătate din fiii lui Machir, după familiile lor.
32
Acestea sânt părţile de moştenire pe cari le-a dat Moise, când era în câmpia Moabului, de cealaltă parte a Iordanului, în faţa Ierihonului, la răsărit.
33
Moise n-a dat nici o moştenire seminţiei lui Levi; Domnul, Dumnezeul lui Israel, este moştenirea lui, cum îi spusese El.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1097,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Allotment of the Land","title_en":"Allotment of the Land","content_ro":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","summary_en":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20687,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21214,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Judges","title_en":"Book of Judges","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","summary_en":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21634,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kerioth","title_en":"Kerioth","content_ro":"<h3>KERIOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Kerioth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KERIOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Kerioth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KERIOTH 1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23). 2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Keri...","summary_en":"KERIOTH 1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23). 2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Keri...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22513,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Land","title_en":"Land","content_ro":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","summary_en":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100752,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128378,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183630,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238882,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253383,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-7<\/strong> Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","summary_en":"13:1-7 Israel did not conquer the entire land of Canaan while Joshua was alive. The unconquered areas, lying mostly in the valleys and plains, were the most populous regions. Several generations passed before Israel became strong enough to absorb or subjugate these regions and their peoples.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116225,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":154640,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":171477,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":210249,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":226729,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":265448,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281981,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Moștenirea țării","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Moștenirea țării<\/h3>\n<p>Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ?<\/p>\n<p>Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor și a fost socotit „foarte bun” (Gen 1:31). Ca urmare a păcatului nostru, această lume materială are nevoie de răscumpărare și, prin harul lui Dumnezeu, va avea parte de răscumpărarea lui Dumnezeu la sfârșitul timpului (vezi Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Unul dintre modurile în care Scriptura afirmă bunătatea și relevanța acestei lumi este printr-o teologie proeminentă a țării. Toată țara îi aparține lui Dumnezeu. Dumnezeu a alungat popoarele canaanite din Țara Promisă din cauza răutății lor. El l-a adus pe Israel în acea țară datorită promisiunilor făcute patriarhilor și pentru că dorește ca pământul să fie sub grija unor administratori umani în acord cu Făcătorul lui.<\/p>\n<p>În Israelul antic, această administrare era susținută prin alocarea unei porțiuni de pământ locuibile fiecărei gospodării. Strict vorbind, alocarea pământului, mai degrabă decât pământul în sine, era încredințarea administrării. Lotul se transmitea de la tați la fii ca partea principală a celor mai multe moșteniri familiale. Urmând aceste principii și instrucțiunea specifică a lui Dumnezeu, Iosua a împărțit țara între seminții, iar semințiile au împărțit-o între clanurile, familiile și gospodăriile lor individuale. Darul lui Dumnezeu al administrării unei anumite porțiuni de pământ era, în esență, darul vieții pentru fiecare gospodărie.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moștenirea țării Este lumea materială rea? Sunt spiritul, sufletul și energia binele pur spre care tindem în călătoria noastră pământească? Vom fi cu adevărat spirituali și cu adevărat fericiți doar atunci când vom fi, în sfârșit, eliberați din închisoarea acestei firi legate de pământ? Biblia răspunde acestor întrebări și altora asemănătoare cu un „Nu!” categoric. Universul, inclusiv acest pământ și toate făpturile lui trupești, a ieșit din mâna pricepută și desăvârșită a Creatorului iubitor...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":13652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gerar","title_en":"Gerar","content_ro":"<h3>GERAR<\/h3>\n<p>City located in the western Negev. It was used as a geographical landmark defining the western boundary of the Canaanite territory from Sidon to Gaza (Gn 10:19). Abraham resided temporarily in this city, at which time he deceived Abimelech the king by giving him the impression that Sarah was his sister (20:1-2). Later, Isaac settled in this city and also disguised his marriage to Rebekah for fear of reprisals from the men of the city. Isaac eventually left the town, moving to the nearby valley of Gerar on account of his conflicts with the Philistines. Here the herdsmen of Gerar quarreled with Isaac’s servants over a newly dug well, and Abimelech, king of the Philistines, made a covenant with Isaac (26:1-26). It is doubtful that King Abimelech of Gerar (20:2) was the same person as Abimelech, king of the Philistines (26:8). Abimelech was probably a surname or an official title.<\/p>\n<p>During the patriarchal period, Gerar appeared as a dominant Canaanite city in the Negev; however, in Joshua’s recounting of the Conquest, this town was not named among the Philistine cities yet to be conquered (Jos 13:2-3) or in the list of cities already defeated (15:21-22). Later, in the period of the kings, Gerar was mentioned as the southernmost city to which the Ethiopian army fled before it was completely destroyed by King Asa of Judah (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) and his army (2 Chr 14:13-14). Perhaps the fertile valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:39; cf. Gn 26:17), formerly inhabited by the sons of Ham (cf. Gn 10:19), was identical with the valley of Gerar. Gedor was possibly a later scribal error where the copyist confused the Hebrew letter <em>r<\/em> for a <em>d.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The site of Gerar is identifiable with Tell Abu Hureireh along the northwestern bank of the Wadi esh-Sheri’ah, 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) northwest of Beersheba and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southeast of Gaza.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GERAR<\/h3>\n<p>City located in the western Negev. It was used as a geographical landmark defining the western boundary of the Canaanite territory from Sidon to Gaza (Gn 10:19). Abraham resided temporarily in this city, at which time he deceived Abimelech the king by giving him the impression that Sarah was his sister (20:1-2). Later, Isaac settled in this city and also disguised his marriage to Rebekah for fear of reprisals from the men of the city. Isaac eventually left the town, moving to the nearby valley of Gerar on account of his conflicts with the Philistines. Here the herdsmen of Gerar quarreled with Isaac’s servants over a newly dug well, and Abimelech, king of the Philistines, made a covenant with Isaac (26:1-26). It is doubtful that King Abimelech of Gerar (20:2) was the same person as Abimelech, king of the Philistines (26:8). Abimelech was probably a surname or an official title.<\/p>\n<p>During the patriarchal period, Gerar appeared as a dominant Canaanite city in the Negev; however, in Joshua’s recounting of the Conquest, this town was not named among the Philistine cities yet to be conquered (Jos 13:2-3) or in the list of cities already defeated (15:21-22). Later, in the period of the kings, Gerar was mentioned as the southernmost city to which the Ethiopian army fled before it was completely destroyed by King Asa of Judah (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) and his army (2 Chr 14:13-14). Perhaps the fertile valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:39; cf. Gn 26:17), formerly inhabited by the sons of Ham (cf. Gn 10:19), was identical with the valley of Gerar. Gedor was possibly a later scribal error where the copyist confused the Hebrew letter <em>r<\/em> for a <em>d.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The site of Gerar is identifiable with Tell Abu Hureireh along the northwestern bank of the Wadi esh-Sheri’ah, 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) northwest of Beersheba and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southeast of Gaza.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GERAR City located in the western Negev. It was used as a geographical landmark defining the western boundary of the Canaanite territory from Sidon to Gaza (Gn 10:19). Abraham resided temporarily in this city, at which time he deceived Abimelech the king by giving him the impression that Sarah was his sister (20:1-2). Later, Isaac settled in this city and also disguised his marriage to Rebekah for fear of reprisals from the men of the city. Isaac eventually left the town, moving to the nearby...","summary_en":"GERAR City located in the western Negev. It was used as a geographical landmark defining the western boundary of the Canaanite territory from Sidon to Gaza (Gn 10:19). Abraham resided temporarily in this city, at which time he deceived Abimelech the king by giving him the impression that Sarah was his sister (20:1-2). Later, Isaac settled in this city and also disguised his marriage to Rebekah for fear of reprisals from the men of the city. Isaac eventually left the town, moving to the nearby...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13711,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Geshurites Geshur","title_en":"Geshurites Geshur","content_ro":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","summary_en":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20802,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21215,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Judges","title_en":"Book of Judges","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","summary_en":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100753,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128379,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143175,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183631,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238883,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253385,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:2<\/strong> <em>The Philistines<\/em> were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These <em>Geshurites<\/em> were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","summary_en":"13:2 The Philistines were one of several groups in the great migration of the Sea Peoples from the Aegean region within a few decades after Israel’s entry into Canaan. They settled along the southwestern Mediterranean coast, west and southwest of Judah. They came from Caphtor or Crete (Deut 2:23; Amos 9:7). • These Geshurites were people from a southern territory, not the northern Geshurites (cp. Josh 12:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":2908,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","title_en":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","summary_en":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2986,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashkelon","title_en":"Ashkelon","content_ro":"<h3>ASHKELON<\/h3>\n<p>City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (<span>kjv<\/span>). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 <span>BC<\/span>) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conquered by Judah (Jgs 1:18). After the Philistine invasion of Canaan in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>, the city became one of the invaders’ major centers. When Samson’s riddle was answered through the duplicity of his Philistine wife, Samson vented his rage at Ashkelon, killing 30 men (Jgs 14:19). Ashkelon was partially responsible for pushing the tribe of Dan from its allotment; so Samson, a member of that tribe, probably had a long-standing grudge against the city. Ashkelon also figures in the story of the Philistine control of the ark (1 Sm 4–6). On hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, David lamented the loss of his king and of his friend, exclaiming that their deaths should not be published in Ashkelon (2 Sm 1:20). Various OT prophets refer to Ashkelon (Jer 25:20; 47:5-6; Am 1:8; Zep 2:4-7; Zec 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the period of Israel’s decline King Pekah of Israel, King Rezin of Damascus, and the king of Ashkelon rebelled against Assyria. Tiglath-pileser III responded with three successive campaigns (734–732 <span>BC<\/span>), the first of which conquered Ashkelon. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city and deported many of its inhabitants to Egypt during his conquest of Palestine (604 <span>BC<\/span>). Successive invaders then took the city from each other: Scythians, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, and Maccabees. Ashkelon was the birthplace of Herod the Great, and ruins of his building projects are to be found there. Ashkelon is not mentioned in the NT but was a battleground in the Jewish rebellion against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHKELON<\/h3>\n<p>City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (<span>kjv<\/span>). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 <span>BC<\/span>) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conquered by Judah (Jgs 1:18). After the Philistine invasion of Canaan in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>, the city became one of the invaders’ major centers. When Samson’s riddle was answered through the duplicity of his Philistine wife, Samson vented his rage at Ashkelon, killing 30 men (Jgs 14:19). Ashkelon was partially responsible for pushing the tribe of Dan from its allotment; so Samson, a member of that tribe, probably had a long-standing grudge against the city. Ashkelon also figures in the story of the Philistine control of the ark (1 Sm 4–6). On hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, David lamented the loss of his king and of his friend, exclaiming that their deaths should not be published in Ashkelon (2 Sm 1:20). Various OT prophets refer to Ashkelon (Jer 25:20; 47:5-6; Am 1:8; Zep 2:4-7; Zec 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the period of Israel’s decline King Pekah of Israel, King Rezin of Damascus, and the king of Ashkelon rebelled against Assyria. Tiglath-pileser III responded with three successive campaigns (734–732 <span>BC<\/span>), the first of which conquered Ashkelon. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city and deported many of its inhabitants to Egypt during his conquest of Palestine (604 <span>BC<\/span>). Successive invaders then took the city from each other: Scythians, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, and Maccabees. Ashkelon was the birthplace of Herod the Great, and ruins of his building projects are to be found there. Ashkelon is not mentioned in the NT but was a battleground in the Jewish rebellion against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHKELON City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (kjv). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 BC) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 BC). Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conq...","summary_en":"ASHKELON City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (kjv). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 BC) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 BC). Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conq...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3237,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Avims*, Avites*","title_en":"Avims*, Avites*","content_ro":"<h3>AVIMS*, AVITES*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV forms of Avvim and Avvites in Deuteronomy 2:23 and Joshua 13:3, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Avvites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AVIMS*, AVITES*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV forms of Avvim and Avvites in Deuteronomy 2:23 and Joshua 13:3, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Avvites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AVIMS*, AVITES* KJV forms of Avvim and Avvites in Deuteronomy 2:23 and Joshua 13:3, respectively. See Avvites.","summary_en":"AVIMS*, AVITES* KJV forms of Avvim and Avvites in Deuteronomy 2:23 and Joshua 13:3, respectively. See Avvites.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3245,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Avvites","title_en":"Avvites","content_ro":"<h3>AVVITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancient people who lived in villages near Gaza before they were largely destroyed by a Philistine invasion (Dt 2:23; Jos 13:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Designation for the inhabitants of the Syrian district of Avva who were relocated by Shalmaneser of Assyria in Samaria after its conquest in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:31). <em>See<\/em> Avva.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AVVITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancient people who lived in villages near Gaza before they were largely destroyed by a Philistine invasion (Dt 2:23; Jos 13:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Designation for the inhabitants of the Syrian district of Avva who were relocated by Shalmaneser of Assyria in Samaria after its conquest in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:31). <em>See<\/em> Avva.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AVVITES 1. Ancient people who lived in villages near Gaza before they were largely destroyed by a Philistine invasion (Dt 2:23; Jos 13:3). 2. Designation for the inhabitants of the Syrian district of Avva who were relocated by Shalmaneser of Assyria in Samaria after its conquest in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:31). See Avva.","summary_en":"AVVITES 1. Ancient people who lived in villages near Gaza before they were largely destroyed by a Philistine invasion (Dt 2:23; Jos 13:3). 2. Designation for the inhabitants of the Syrian district of Avva who were relocated by Shalmaneser of Assyria in Samaria after its conquest in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:31). See Avva.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10204,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ekron, Ekronites*","title_en":"Ekron, Ekronites*","content_ro":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","summary_en":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11101,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eshkalonite*","title_en":"Eshkalonite*","content_ro":"<h3>ESHKALONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of the Philistine city Ashkelon (Jos 13:3, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ashkelon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESHKALONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of the Philistine city Ashkelon (Jos 13:3, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ashkelon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESHKALONITE* Inhabitant of the Philistine city Ashkelon (Jos 13:3, kjv). See Ashkelon.","summary_en":"ESHKALONITE* Inhabitant of the Philistine city Ashkelon (Jos 13:3, kjv). See Ashkelon.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13238,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gath","title_en":"Gath","content_ro":"<h3>GATH<\/h3>\n<p>Walled city (2 Chr 26:6) and one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, which also included Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron (Jos 13:3; 1 Sm 6:17), all situated on or near the southern coast of Palestine. Although frequently involved in conflict with the Israelites, the city was apparently not subdued until David’s time (1 Chr 18:1). It was a Canaanite city, the home of the giant Goliath (1 Sm 17:4) and other men of great height (2 Sm 21:18-22). A remnant of the Anakim was left, even after the extensive campaigns of Joshua (Jos 10:36-39; 11:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines captured the ark of God, they carried it from Ebenezer to Ashdod, from there to Gath (1 Sm 5:8), and then to Ekron. After many of the Philistines died or were stricken with tumors, the ark was returned to Israel, first to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim (6:14; 7:1). When David fled from Saul, he came to Gath and feigned madness before Achish, the king of the city (21:10-15). During the rebellion of Absalom, 600 Gittites served among David’s mercenaries (2 Sm 15:18). According to 2 Chronicles 11:8, Rehoboam fortified the city of Gath, and 2 Kings 12:17 relates that it was taken by Hazael, king of Syria, in the ninth century. But it was apparently again in Philistine control when Uzziah broke down its walls (2 Chr 26:6). The city disappeared after being besieged and conquered by Sargon II in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (Am 6:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GATH<\/h3>\n<p>Walled city (2 Chr 26:6) and one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, which also included Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron (Jos 13:3; 1 Sm 6:17), all situated on or near the southern coast of Palestine. Although frequently involved in conflict with the Israelites, the city was apparently not subdued until David’s time (1 Chr 18:1). It was a Canaanite city, the home of the giant Goliath (1 Sm 17:4) and other men of great height (2 Sm 21:18-22). A remnant of the Anakim was left, even after the extensive campaigns of Joshua (Jos 10:36-39; 11:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines captured the ark of God, they carried it from Ebenezer to Ashdod, from there to Gath (1 Sm 5:8), and then to Ekron. After many of the Philistines died or were stricken with tumors, the ark was returned to Israel, first to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim (6:14; 7:1). When David fled from Saul, he came to Gath and feigned madness before Achish, the king of the city (21:10-15). During the rebellion of Absalom, 600 Gittites served among David’s mercenaries (2 Sm 15:18). According to 2 Chronicles 11:8, Rehoboam fortified the city of Gath, and 2 Kings 12:17 relates that it was taken by Hazael, king of Syria, in the ninth century. But it was apparently again in Philistine control when Uzziah broke down its walls (2 Chr 26:6). The city disappeared after being besieged and conquered by Sargon II in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (Am 6:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GATH Walled city (2 Chr 26:6) and one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, which also included Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron (Jos 13:3; 1 Sm 6:17), all situated on or near the southern coast of Palestine. Although frequently involved in conflict with the Israelites, the city was apparently not subdued until David’s time (1 Chr 18:1). It was a Canaanite city, the home of the giant Goliath (1 Sm 17:4) and other men of great height (2 Sm 21:18-22). A remnant of the Anakim was left, e...","summary_en":"GATH Walled city (2 Chr 26:6) and one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, which also included Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron (Jos 13:3; 1 Sm 6:17), all situated on or near the southern coast of Palestine. Although frequently involved in conflict with the Israelites, the city was apparently not subdued until David’s time (1 Chr 18:1). It was a Canaanite city, the home of the giant Goliath (1 Sm 17:4) and other men of great height (2 Sm 21:18-22). A remnant of the Anakim was left, e...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13273,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaza","title_en":"Gaza","content_ro":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","summary_en":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13286,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gazathites*","title_en":"Gazathites*","content_ro":"<h3>GAZATHITES*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling for residents of Gaza (Jos 13:3). <em>See<\/em> Gaza; Gazites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZATHITES*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling for residents of Gaza (Jos 13:3). <em>See<\/em> Gaza; Gazites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZATHITES* KJV alternate spelling for residents of Gaza (Jos 13:3). See Gaza; Gazites.","summary_en":"GAZATHITES* KJV alternate spelling for residents of Gaza (Jos 13:3). See Gaza; Gazites.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35050,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shihor","title_en":"Shihor","content_ro":"<h3>SHIHOR<\/h3>\n<p>Body of water in Egypt. The name is Egyptian and is given as a boundary of the land to be possessed by the Hebrews (Jos 13:3). First Chronicles 13:5 refers to Shihor as the southwestern limit of Israelite settlement in the time of David. Isaiah speaks of grain from the region of Shihor as a source of income for the city of Sidon (Is 23:3). Jeremiah describes Shihor as “the waters of the Nile” (Jer 2:18). Some believe that the Shihor was the easternmost branch of the Nile Delta. Others identify the Shihor with the Wadi el-Arish, 90 miles (144.8 kilometers) east of the Suez Canal. Still others identify it with the Brook (or River) of Egypt, a body of water whose precise location cannot be determined with certainty.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brook of Egypt; Nile River.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHIHOR<\/h3>\n<p>Body of water in Egypt. The name is Egyptian and is given as a boundary of the land to be possessed by the Hebrews (Jos 13:3). First Chronicles 13:5 refers to Shihor as the southwestern limit of Israelite settlement in the time of David. Isaiah speaks of grain from the region of Shihor as a source of income for the city of Sidon (Is 23:3). Jeremiah describes Shihor as “the waters of the Nile” (Jer 2:18). Some believe that the Shihor was the easternmost branch of the Nile Delta. Others identify the Shihor with the Wadi el-Arish, 90 miles (144.8 kilometers) east of the Suez Canal. Still others identify it with the Brook (or River) of Egypt, a body of water whose precise location cannot be determined with certainty.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brook of Egypt; Nile River.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHIHOR Body of water in Egypt. The name is Egyptian and is given as a boundary of the land to be possessed by the Hebrews (Jos 13:3). First Chronicles 13:5 refers to Shihor as the southwestern limit of Israelite settlement in the time of David. Isaiah speaks of grain from the region of Shihor as a source of income for the city of Sidon (Is 23:3). Jeremiah describes Shihor as “the waters of the Nile” (Jer 2:18). Some believe that the Shihor was the easternmost branch of the Nile Delta. Others ...","summary_en":"SHIHOR Body of water in Egypt. The name is Egyptian and is given as a boundary of the land to be possessed by the Hebrews (Jos 13:3). First Chronicles 13:5 refers to Shihor as the southwestern limit of Israelite settlement in the time of David. Isaiah speaks of grain from the region of Shihor as a source of income for the city of Sidon (Is 23:3). Jeremiah describes Shihor as “the waters of the Nile” (Jer 2:18). Some believe that the Shihor was the easternmost branch of the Nile Delta. Others ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35359,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sihor*","title_en":"Sihor*","content_ro":"<h3>SIHOR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Shihor, a body of water in northeast Egypt, in Joshua 13:3, Isaiah 23:3, and Jeremiah 2:18 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Shihor.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIHOR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Shihor, a body of water in northeast Egypt, in Joshua 13:3, Isaiah 23:3, and Jeremiah 2:18 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Shihor.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIHOR* KJV form of Shihor, a body of water in northeast Egypt, in Joshua 13:3, Isaiah 23:3, and Jeremiah 2:18 (nlt mg). See Shihor.","summary_en":"SIHOR* KJV form of Shihor, a body of water in northeast Egypt, in Joshua 13:3, Isaiah 23:3, and Jeremiah 2:18 (nlt mg). See Shihor.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100754,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128380,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183632,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238884,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253387,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:3","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:3<\/strong> <em>The stream of Shihor<\/em> probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included <em>five<\/em> main cities: <em>Gaza, Ashdod,<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on the Mediterranean coast, and <em>Gath<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced <em>the Avvites<\/em> (Deut 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","summary_en":"13:3 The stream of Shihor probably marked the traditional boundary between Canaan and Egypt, bisecting the northern Sinai Peninsula. • The Philistine territory included five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, and Ashkelon were on the Mediterranean coast, and Gath and Ekron were a few miles inland. • The Philistines displaced the Avvites (Deut 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":2260,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aphek","title_en":"Aphek","content_ro":"<h3>APHEK<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antipatris.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campaigns (Jos 13:4). This Aphek was probably located near the source of the river Ibrahim, east of Byblos.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town given to Asher’s tribe in the distribution of conquered cities (Jos 19:30). Asher’s tribe failed to drive out the pagan inhabitants (Jgs 1:31, where it is spelled “Aphik”). Aphek was located on the plain of Acco, at the present site of Tell Kurdaneh near the source of the river Na’main.<\/li>\n<li>4. City east of the Jordan River, on the main highway between Damascus and the valley of Jezreel. The Syrian king Ben-hadad, defeated by King Ahab of Israel, retreated into Aphek, where a falling wall demolished the rest of his army (1 Kgs 20:26, 30). A century later Elisha prophesied to King Joash of Israel that he would defeat the Syrians in the same city (2 Kgs 13:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>APHEK<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antipatris.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campaigns (Jos 13:4). This Aphek was probably located near the source of the river Ibrahim, east of Byblos.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town given to Asher’s tribe in the distribution of conquered cities (Jos 19:30). Asher’s tribe failed to drive out the pagan inhabitants (Jgs 1:31, where it is spelled “Aphik”). Aphek was located on the plain of Acco, at the present site of Tell Kurdaneh near the source of the river Na’main.<\/li>\n<li>4. City east of the Jordan River, on the main highway between Damascus and the valley of Jezreel. The Syrian king Ben-hadad, defeated by King Ahab of Israel, retreated into Aphek, where a falling wall demolished the rest of his army (1 Kgs 20:26, 30). A century later Elisha prophesied to King Joash of Israel that he would defeat the Syrians in the same city (2 Kgs 13:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"APHEK 1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain. See also Antipatris. 2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campa...","summary_en":"APHEK 1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain. See also Antipatris. 2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campa...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2911,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","title_en":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","summary_en":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8526,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Dan","title_en":"Tribe of Dan","content_ro":"<h3>DAN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Dan was the second largest tribe at the first census taken in the wilderness (62,700 warriors—Nm 1:38-39). They were instructed to encamp on the north side of the Israelites’ camp along with Asher and Naphtali (Nm 2:25-31), and were to bring up the rear in the line of march (Nm 2:31; 10:25). At the second census 40 years later, just before entering the Promised Land, they had grown only to 64,400 (26:42-43), still second in size. The tribe does not stand out in the Conquest narratives (Dt 2:16–3:29; Jos 1–24; Jgs 1). Dan is listed among the tribes who reminded Israel of the covenant curses at Mt Ebal (Dt 27:13; cf. Jos 8:30-33). The tribe is called a “lion’s whelp” in Moses’ blessing (Dt 33:22). Some believe that the reference to “Bashan” in that blessing prefigured the Danites’ migration to the northern territory where they eventually settled.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most significant references to Dan’s tribe is the account of its northward migration (Jos 19:40-48; Jgs 18). The Danites had been allotted a portion of Canaan between Judah and Ephraim bordering the Mediterranean seacoast (Jos 19:40-46; Jgs 5:17), but were unable to occupy their territory except for the valley at Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 13:25; 18:2). As a result, a group of Danites, discouraged with their situation, marched north and captured Laish, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee and just below Israel’s northernmost border. Laish was renamed Dan at that time (18:27-29). Their association with that northern territory eventually gave rise to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10) as designating Israel’s northern and southern borders.<\/p>\n<p>Southern Dan continued for some time, as illustrated in the exploits of Samson of the tribe of Dan (Jgs 13–16). Evidently the southern Danites gradually merged into the tribe of Judah, and no historical reference to the southern Danite tribe is made in the rest of the OT. The Danites were mentioned in King David’s time as mustering a considerable army loyal to David (1 Chr 12:35; 27:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Danites were among the tribes who did not drive the Canaanites from their territory (Jos 13:4-5; cf. Jgs 1:34-35). Joshua had to prod them into the task at the Shiloh assembly (Jos 18:1-4; 19:40-48). Eventually the Danites gave up the effort and sought other lands in the north, where conquest was easier. Their disobedience was further manifested in their open sin of setting up a “graven image” and establishing a rival priesthood, even though their priest was a Levite (Jgs 18:30-31). The result of that idolatry was that, at the division of the Israelite kingdom at the end of King Solomon’s reign, King Jeroboam of the northern kingdom of Israel chose the city of Dan as one of the idol shrines in which to set up the golden calves (1 Kgs 12:28-29). The Danites’ apostasy, and that of the other northern tribes, continued throughout their history (2 Kgs 10:29), and because of it they were eventually carried captive to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribe name is mentioned in the prophet Ezekiel’s idealized description of the restored land and Jerusalem (Ez 48:1-2, 32). In the NT, the apostle John omitted the tribe from a list of Israel’s tribes (Rv 7:4-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Dan (Person); Dan (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Dan was the second largest tribe at the first census taken in the wilderness (62,700 warriors—Nm 1:38-39). They were instructed to encamp on the north side of the Israelites’ camp along with Asher and Naphtali (Nm 2:25-31), and were to bring up the rear in the line of march (Nm 2:31; 10:25). At the second census 40 years later, just before entering the Promised Land, they had grown only to 64,400 (26:42-43), still second in size. The tribe does not stand out in the Conquest narratives (Dt 2:16–3:29; Jos 1–24; Jgs 1). Dan is listed among the tribes who reminded Israel of the covenant curses at Mt Ebal (Dt 27:13; cf. Jos 8:30-33). The tribe is called a “lion’s whelp” in Moses’ blessing (Dt 33:22). Some believe that the reference to “Bashan” in that blessing prefigured the Danites’ migration to the northern territory where they eventually settled.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most significant references to Dan’s tribe is the account of its northward migration (Jos 19:40-48; Jgs 18). The Danites had been allotted a portion of Canaan between Judah and Ephraim bordering the Mediterranean seacoast (Jos 19:40-46; Jgs 5:17), but were unable to occupy their territory except for the valley at Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 13:25; 18:2). As a result, a group of Danites, discouraged with their situation, marched north and captured Laish, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee and just below Israel’s northernmost border. Laish was renamed Dan at that time (18:27-29). Their association with that northern territory eventually gave rise to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10) as designating Israel’s northern and southern borders.<\/p>\n<p>Southern Dan continued for some time, as illustrated in the exploits of Samson of the tribe of Dan (Jgs 13–16). Evidently the southern Danites gradually merged into the tribe of Judah, and no historical reference to the southern Danite tribe is made in the rest of the OT. The Danites were mentioned in King David’s time as mustering a considerable army loyal to David (1 Chr 12:35; 27:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Danites were among the tribes who did not drive the Canaanites from their territory (Jos 13:4-5; cf. Jgs 1:34-35). Joshua had to prod them into the task at the Shiloh assembly (Jos 18:1-4; 19:40-48). Eventually the Danites gave up the effort and sought other lands in the north, where conquest was easier. Their disobedience was further manifested in their open sin of setting up a “graven image” and establishing a rival priesthood, even though their priest was a Levite (Jgs 18:30-31). The result of that idolatry was that, at the division of the Israelite kingdom at the end of King Solomon’s reign, King Jeroboam of the northern kingdom of Israel chose the city of Dan as one of the idol shrines in which to set up the golden calves (1 Kgs 12:28-29). The Danites’ apostasy, and that of the other northern tribes, continued throughout their history (2 Kgs 10:29), and because of it they were eventually carried captive to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribe name is mentioned in the prophet Ezekiel’s idealized description of the restored land and Jerusalem (Ez 48:1-2, 32). In the NT, the apostle John omitted the tribe from a list of Israel’s tribes (Rv 7:4-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Dan (Person); Dan (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAN, Tribe of Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12). Dan was the second largest tr...","summary_en":"DAN, Tribe of Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12). Dan was the second largest tr...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24896,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mearah","title_en":"Mearah","content_ro":"<h3>MEARAH<\/h3>\n<p>Region of Palestine that the Israelites had not possessed (Jos 13:4, <span>niv<\/span> “Arah”). Its location is uncertain. Suggestions include the district of caves (Mearah means “cave”) near Sidon called Mughar Jezzin, and the towns Khirbet ‘Arah and Mogheiriyeh.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEARAH<\/h3>\n<p>Region of Palestine that the Israelites had not possessed (Jos 13:4, <span>niv<\/span> “Arah”). Its location is uncertain. Suggestions include the district of caves (Mearah means “cave”) near Sidon called Mughar Jezzin, and the towns Khirbet ‘Arah and Mogheiriyeh.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEARAH Region of Palestine that the Israelites had not possessed (Jos 13:4, niv “Arah”). Its location is uncertain. Suggestions include the district of caves (Mearah means “cave”) near Sidon called Mughar Jezzin, and the towns Khirbet ‘Arah and Mogheiriyeh.","summary_en":"MEARAH Region of Palestine that the Israelites had not possessed (Jos 13:4, niv “Arah”). Its location is uncertain. Suggestions include the district of caves (Mearah means “cave”) near Sidon called Mughar Jezzin, and the towns Khirbet ‘Arah and Mogheiriyeh.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sidonian Sidon (Place)","title_en":"Sidonian Sidon (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN<\/h3>\n<p>City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn son of Canaan, who was a son of Ham. The territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza and east to the Cities of the Plain.<\/p>\n<p>Sidon is situated 22 miles (35.4 kilometers) north of Tyre, with which it is often associated (e.g., Is 23:1-2; Jer 47:4; Mt 11:21-22); both were much concerned with commerce and industry. Sidon was built on a headland that jutted into the sea toward the southwest. It had two harbors, the northern one having inner and outer ports. Sidon was also a center for the manufacture of the purple dye made from the Murex shellfish.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible mentions Sidon several times in connection with the conquest of Palestine. Joshua defeated the northern confederation under Jabin, king of Hazor, and pursued the enemy as far as “Great Sidon” (Jos 11:8). Joshua also stated that the land of Israel included all of Lebanon, “even all the Sidonians” (13:4-6). The tribal allotment of Asher extended as far north as “Sidon the Great” (19:28), but Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Sidon (Jgs 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>The gods of Sidon are listed among the foreign deities that Israel served (Jgs 10:6); David’s census included Sidon and Tyre (2 Sm 24:6-7); and during a famine in the time of Ahab, the prophet Elijah was sent to live at the home of a widow in Zarephath (Sarepta) in Sidon (1 Kgs 17:9; Lk 4:25-26). Sidon is referred to often by the Hebrew prophets (Is 23:2, 4, 12; Jer 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ez 27:8; Jl 3:4; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus healed the daughter of a woman of that area (Mt 15:21-28). People came from as far away as Tyre and Sidon to hear Jesus and to be healed by him (Lk 6:17). On Paul’s voyage to Rome to appear before Caesar, the ship made its first stop at Sidon, where the centurion, Julius, allowed Paul to go ashore to visit friends (Acts 27:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN<\/h3>\n<p>City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn son of Canaan, who was a son of Ham. The territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza and east to the Cities of the Plain.<\/p>\n<p>Sidon is situated 22 miles (35.4 kilometers) north of Tyre, with which it is often associated (e.g., Is 23:1-2; Jer 47:4; Mt 11:21-22); both were much concerned with commerce and industry. Sidon was built on a headland that jutted into the sea toward the southwest. It had two harbors, the northern one having inner and outer ports. Sidon was also a center for the manufacture of the purple dye made from the Murex shellfish.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible mentions Sidon several times in connection with the conquest of Palestine. Joshua defeated the northern confederation under Jabin, king of Hazor, and pursued the enemy as far as “Great Sidon” (Jos 11:8). Joshua also stated that the land of Israel included all of Lebanon, “even all the Sidonians” (13:4-6). The tribal allotment of Asher extended as far north as “Sidon the Great” (19:28), but Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Sidon (Jgs 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>The gods of Sidon are listed among the foreign deities that Israel served (Jgs 10:6); David’s census included Sidon and Tyre (2 Sm 24:6-7); and during a famine in the time of Ahab, the prophet Elijah was sent to live at the home of a widow in Zarephath (Sarepta) in Sidon (1 Kgs 17:9; Lk 4:25-26). Sidon is referred to often by the Hebrew prophets (Is 23:2, 4, 12; Jer 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ez 27:8; Jl 3:4; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus healed the daughter of a woman of that area (Mt 15:21-28). People came from as far away as Tyre and Sidon to hear Jesus and to be healed by him (Lk 6:17). On Paul’s voyage to Rome to appear before Caesar, the ship made its first stop at Sidon, where the centurion, Julius, allowed Paul to go ashore to visit friends (Acts 27:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the kjv. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT. The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn ...","summary_en":"SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the kjv. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT. The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100755,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128381,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183633,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198073,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238885,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253389,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-6a<\/strong> The <em>Sidonians<\/em> (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived <em>in the north<\/em> along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","summary_en":"13:4-6a The Sidonians (that is, Phoenicians; see Isa 23:11; Obad 1:20; Acts 11:19) lived in the north along the coast, from north of Mount Carmel to above Gebal (Byblos). They also apparently occupied the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Sidon was the dominant Phoenician city when Israel entered Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":3384,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baal-Gad","title_en":"Baal-Gad","content_ro":"<h3>BAAL-GAD<\/h3>\n<p>Site in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Mt Hermon marking the northern border of Joshua’s conquest of Canaan (Jos 11:17; 12:7; 13:5). <em>See<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAAL-GAD<\/h3>\n<p>Site in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Mt Hermon marking the northern border of Joshua’s conquest of Canaan (Jos 11:17; 12:7; 13:5). <em>See<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAAL-GAD Site in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Mt Hermon marking the northern border of Joshua’s conquest of Canaan (Jos 11:17; 12:7; 13:5). See Hermon, Mount.","summary_en":"BAAL-GAD Site in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Mt Hermon marking the northern border of Joshua’s conquest of Canaan (Jos 11:17; 12:7; 13:5). See Hermon, Mount.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3395,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baal-Hermon","title_en":"Baal-Hermon","content_ro":"<h3>BAAL-HERMON<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite territory in Transjordan near Mt Hermon, not captured in the Israelite conquest. It was one of the regions God wanted to use to test the younger generation of Israel (Jgs 3:1-6). Baal-hermon may refer to a place on the mountain. It seems to be another name for Baal-gad (Jos 13:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAAL-HERMON<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite territory in Transjordan near Mt Hermon, not captured in the Israelite conquest. It was one of the regions God wanted to use to test the younger generation of Israel (Jgs 3:1-6). Baal-hermon may refer to a place on the mountain. It seems to be another name for Baal-gad (Jos 13:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAAL-HERMON Hivite territory in Transjordan near Mt Hermon, not captured in the Israelite conquest. It was one of the regions God wanted to use to test the younger generation of Israel (Jgs 3:1-6). Baal-hermon may refer to a place on the mountain. It seems to be another name for Baal-gad (Jos 13:5). See also Hermon, Mount.","summary_en":"BAAL-HERMON Hivite territory in Transjordan near Mt Hermon, not captured in the Israelite conquest. It was one of the regions God wanted to use to test the younger generation of Israel (Jgs 3:1-6). Baal-hermon may refer to a place on the mountain. It seems to be another name for Baal-gad (Jos 13:5). See also Hermon, Mount.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13306,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gebal","title_en":"Gebal","content_ro":"<h3>GEBAL<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the earliest villages in Phoenicia and Syria (along with Ras Shamra and Tell Judeideh); also called Byblos (“books”) by the Greeks. It was situated on the Mediterranean about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of modern Beirut and was an important commercial center and outlet for the hardwoods of Lebanon in the period when it was an Egyptian colony and when the diplomatic and commercial interests of Egypt reached all over Syria. It was a city-kingdom according to the Amarna letters (c. 1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>), and seal impressions found there from a very early period suggest that it was on a major exchange route through Palestine and Syria. Its inhabitants were called Gebalites (Jos 13:5). While it was a great commercial center, a more important achievement of the Gebalites was the development of a syllabic script modeled on the Egyptian. Passed on from Phoenicia to Greece, it became the ancestor of our own alphabet.<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory southeast of the Dead Sea, associated with Ammon and Amalek as hostile to Israel (Ps 83:7).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GEBAL<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the earliest villages in Phoenicia and Syria (along with Ras Shamra and Tell Judeideh); also called Byblos (“books”) by the Greeks. It was situated on the Mediterranean about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of modern Beirut and was an important commercial center and outlet for the hardwoods of Lebanon in the period when it was an Egyptian colony and when the diplomatic and commercial interests of Egypt reached all over Syria. It was a city-kingdom according to the Amarna letters (c. 1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>), and seal impressions found there from a very early period suggest that it was on a major exchange route through Palestine and Syria. Its inhabitants were called Gebalites (Jos 13:5). While it was a great commercial center, a more important achievement of the Gebalites was the development of a syllabic script modeled on the Egyptian. Passed on from Phoenicia to Greece, it became the ancestor of our own alphabet.<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory southeast of the Dead Sea, associated with Ammon and Amalek as hostile to Israel (Ps 83:7).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GEBAL 1. One of the earliest villages in Phoenicia and Syria (along with Ras Shamra and Tell Judeideh); also called Byblos (“books”) by the Greeks. It was situated on the Mediterranean about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of modern Beirut and was an important commercial center and outlet for the hardwoods of Lebanon in the period when it was an Egyptian colony and when the diplomatic and commercial interests of Egypt reached all over Syria. It was a city-kingdom according to the Amarna lett...","summary_en":"GEBAL 1. One of the earliest villages in Phoenicia and Syria (along with Ras Shamra and Tell Judeideh); also called Byblos (“books”) by the Greeks. It was situated on the Mediterranean about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) north of modern Beirut and was an important commercial center and outlet for the hardwoods of Lebanon in the period when it was an Egyptian colony and when the diplomatic and commercial interests of Egypt reached all over Syria. It was a city-kingdom according to the Amarna lett...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13308,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gebalite","title_en":"Gebalite","content_ro":"<h3>GEBALITE<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Gebal (Jos 13:5). <em>See<\/em> Gebal #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GEBALITE<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Gebal (Jos 13:5). <em>See<\/em> Gebal #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GEBALITE Inhabitant of Gebal (Jos 13:5). See Gebal #1.","summary_en":"GEBALITE Inhabitant of Gebal (Jos 13:5). See Gebal #1.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13795,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giblite*","title_en":"Giblite*","content_ro":"<h3>GIBLITE*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Gebalite, an inhabitant of Gebal, in Joshua 13:5. <em>See<\/em> Gebal #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBLITE*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Gebalite, an inhabitant of Gebal, in Joshua 13:5. <em>See<\/em> Gebal #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBLITE* KJV rendering of Gebalite, an inhabitant of Gebal, in Joshua 13:5. See Gebal #1.","summary_en":"GIBLITE* KJV rendering of Gebalite, an inhabitant of Gebal, in Joshua 13:5. See Gebal #1.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hamath","title_en":"Hamath","content_ro":"<h3>HAMATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lebo Hamath<\/span>), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). The location is uncertain but was between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Some scholars have thought of it as an actual place-name, Lebo-hamath, and have identified it with modern Lebweh on the Orontes. Others have located it elsewhere in Syria.<\/li>\n<p>Hamath was established during the Neolithic period and destroyed about 1750 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by the Hyksos. It was later rebuilt and conquered by Thutmose III (1502–1448 <span>BC<\/span>), and while Egypt controlled Syria, Hamath prospered. Several Hittite inscriptions have been discovered that disclose that Hamath had become the capital of a small Hittite kingdom prior to 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When David fought Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and defeated him, then Toi, king of Hamath, sent his son to congratulate David (2 Sm 8:9-10). Since Solomon built store-cities in the region of Hamath (2 Chr 8:4), it has been suggested that Hamath had become a tributary kingdom to Israel. During the reign of Ahab of Israel, the Assyrian royal inscriptions state that Irhulini, king of Hamath, allied with Damascus, Israel, and the 12 kings of the coast to resist the advances of Shalmaneser III (860–825 <span>BC<\/span>). The league halted Shalmaneser, although he continued to harass Syria, and about 846 <span>BC<\/span> he conquered the Syrian league, when Hamath became subject to Assyria. In 730 <span>BC<\/span> Eni-Ilus, then king of Hamath, paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III. About 720 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon II colonized Hamath with 4,300 Assyrians and moved many people from different areas of his kingdom, including Hamath, to Samaria (2 Kgs 17:24). Israelites also were apparently colonized in Hamath (Is 11:11). Other OT references to the Assyrian conquest of Hamath include 2 Kings 18:34, 19:13, Isaiah 10:9, 36:19, 37:13, and Amos 6:2. Later the city seems to have been subject to Damascus (Jer 49:23). Some of the prophets predicted that Israel would eventually extend its boundaries once again to Hamath (Ez 47:16-17; 48:1; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Jonathan Maccabeus and his army met the army of Demetrius at Hamath (1 Macc 12:25). According to Josephus, Antiochus Epiphanes changed its name to Epiphania (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 1.4.2), the name by which it was known to the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath, Entrance of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Hamath-zobah is mentioned in 2 Chronicles 8:3 as a town conquered by Solomon. Some have suggested that it was the same city as the Hamath above, while others suggest that it was a different town in the district of Zobah.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath-zobah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAMATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lebo Hamath<\/span>), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). The location is uncertain but was between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Some scholars have thought of it as an actual place-name, Lebo-hamath, and have identified it with modern Lebweh on the Orontes. Others have located it elsewhere in Syria.<\/li>\n<p>Hamath was established during the Neolithic period and destroyed about 1750 <span>BC<\/span>, perhaps by the Hyksos. It was later rebuilt and conquered by Thutmose III (1502–1448 <span>BC<\/span>), and while Egypt controlled Syria, Hamath prospered. Several Hittite inscriptions have been discovered that disclose that Hamath had become the capital of a small Hittite kingdom prior to 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When David fought Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and defeated him, then Toi, king of Hamath, sent his son to congratulate David (2 Sm 8:9-10). Since Solomon built store-cities in the region of Hamath (2 Chr 8:4), it has been suggested that Hamath had become a tributary kingdom to Israel. During the reign of Ahab of Israel, the Assyrian royal inscriptions state that Irhulini, king of Hamath, allied with Damascus, Israel, and the 12 kings of the coast to resist the advances of Shalmaneser III (860–825 <span>BC<\/span>). The league halted Shalmaneser, although he continued to harass Syria, and about 846 <span>BC<\/span> he conquered the Syrian league, when Hamath became subject to Assyria. In 730 <span>BC<\/span> Eni-Ilus, then king of Hamath, paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III. About 720 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon II colonized Hamath with 4,300 Assyrians and moved many people from different areas of his kingdom, including Hamath, to Samaria (2 Kgs 17:24). Israelites also were apparently colonized in Hamath (Is 11:11). Other OT references to the Assyrian conquest of Hamath include 2 Kings 18:34, 19:13, Isaiah 10:9, 36:19, 37:13, and Amos 6:2. Later the city seems to have been subject to Damascus (Jer 49:23). Some of the prophets predicted that Israel would eventually extend its boundaries once again to Hamath (Ez 47:16-17; 48:1; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Jonathan Maccabeus and his army met the army of Demetrius at Hamath (1 Macc 12:25). According to Josephus, Antiochus Epiphanes changed its name to Epiphania (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 1.4.2), the name by which it was known to the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath, Entrance of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Hamath-zobah is mentioned in 2 Chronicles 8:3 as a town conquered by Solomon. Some have suggested that it was the same city as the Hamath above, while others suggest that it was a different town in the district of Zobah.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hamath-zobah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAMATH 1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, Lebo Hamath), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). The location i...","summary_en":"HAMATH 1. City and district located about 125 miles (201 kilometers) north of Damascus (Syria), on the Orontes River. The early residents apparently were of the Hamitic race from the descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:18), but later inhabitants were Semitic. It was to be the northern boundary of the nation of Israel, described as the “entrance of Hamath” (Nm 34:7-8; Jos 13:5; Hebrew, Lebo Hamath), but actually it was such only in the early monarchy and under Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). The location i...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16259,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mount Hermon","title_en":"Mount Hermon","content_ro":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","summary_en":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":20804,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26090,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Misrephoth-Maim","title_en":"Misrephoth-Maim","content_ro":"<h3>MISREPHOTH-MAIM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the northernmost places to which the Israelites pursued the fleeing Canaanite armies defeated at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:8). Misrephoth-maim, meaning “burning of water,” defined part of the boundary of land remaining yet to be possessed by Israel during the days of Joshua (13:6). In all probability, Misrephoth-maim is identical with the cluster of springs at Khirbet el-Musheirifeh near the Mediterranean Sea, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) north of Tyre, at the base of Ras en-Nakurah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISREPHOTH-MAIM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the northernmost places to which the Israelites pursued the fleeing Canaanite armies defeated at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:8). Misrephoth-maim, meaning “burning of water,” defined part of the boundary of land remaining yet to be possessed by Israel during the days of Joshua (13:6). In all probability, Misrephoth-maim is identical with the cluster of springs at Khirbet el-Musheirifeh near the Mediterranean Sea, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) north of Tyre, at the base of Ras en-Nakurah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISREPHOTH-MAIM One of the northernmost places to which the Israelites pursued the fleeing Canaanite armies defeated at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:8). Misrephoth-maim, meaning “burning of water,” defined part of the boundary of land remaining yet to be possessed by Israel during the days of Joshua (13:6). In all probability, Misrephoth-maim is identical with the cluster of springs at Khirbet el-Musheirifeh near the Mediterranean Sea, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 6 miles (9.7...","summary_en":"MISREPHOTH-MAIM One of the northernmost places to which the Israelites pursued the fleeing Canaanite armies defeated at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:8). Misrephoth-maim, meaning “burning of water,” defined part of the boundary of land remaining yet to be possessed by Israel during the days of Joshua (13:6). In all probability, Misrephoth-maim is identical with the cluster of springs at Khirbet el-Musheirifeh near the Mediterranean Sea, 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 6 miles (9.7...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100756,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128382,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183634,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198075,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238886,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253391,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6b-7<\/strong> The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","summary_en":"13:6b-7 The lands just listed had not yet been conquered, but God directed Joshua to show his faith by allotting them to the tribes against the future, when they would be taken.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":20638,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joshua (Person)","title_en":"Joshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":1351,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ammonites Ammon","title_en":"Ammonites Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","summary_en":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13047,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Gad","title_en":"Tribe of Gad","content_ro":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","summary_en":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20639,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joshua (Person)","title_en":"Joshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20805,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24244,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Manasseh","title_en":"Tribe of Manasseh","content_ro":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","summary_en":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37600,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Transjordan*","title_en":"Transjordan*","content_ro":"<h3>TRANSJORDAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Territory on the east side of the Jordan River. Although this name does not appear in the Bible, numerous events took place there in biblical history. Today the area is roughly equivalent to the kingdom of Jordan. In biblical times the area would have comprised Bashan, Gilead, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the desert regions farther east. In the OT the expression “beyond the Jordan” is often used for the area (Gn 50:10-11; Dt 3:20; 4:47; Jos 9:10; 13:8; 18:7; Jgs 5:17), although the same expression is used occasionally for the area west of Jordan (Dt 3:25). In NT times, this area was known as Perea. <em>See<\/em> Perea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRANSJORDAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Territory on the east side of the Jordan River. Although this name does not appear in the Bible, numerous events took place there in biblical history. Today the area is roughly equivalent to the kingdom of Jordan. In biblical times the area would have comprised Bashan, Gilead, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the desert regions farther east. In the OT the expression “beyond the Jordan” is often used for the area (Gn 50:10-11; Dt 3:20; 4:47; Jos 9:10; 13:8; 18:7; Jgs 5:17), although the same expression is used occasionally for the area west of Jordan (Dt 3:25). In NT times, this area was known as Perea. <em>See<\/em> Perea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRANSJORDAN* Territory on the east side of the Jordan River. Although this name does not appear in the Bible, numerous events took place there in biblical history. Today the area is roughly equivalent to the kingdom of Jordan. In biblical times the area would have comprised Bashan, Gilead, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the desert regions farther east. In the OT the expression “beyond the Jordan” is often used for the area (Gn 50:10-11; Dt 3:20; 4:47; Jos 9:10; 13:8; 18:7; Jgs 5:17), although the sam...","summary_en":"TRANSJORDAN* Territory on the east side of the Jordan River. Although this name does not appear in the Bible, numerous events took place there in biblical history. Today the area is roughly equivalent to the kingdom of Jordan. In biblical times the area would have comprised Bashan, Gilead, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the desert regions farther east. In the OT the expression “beyond the Jordan” is often used for the area (Gn 50:10-11; Dt 3:20; 4:47; Jos 9:10; 13:8; 18:7; Jgs 5:17), although the sam...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100751,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100757,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128377,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128383,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143171,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183629,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183635,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198077,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238881,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238887,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253381,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1–21:45<\/strong> As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the author describes some borders in such detail that they can be plotted on a map while others were far less well defined.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","summary_en":"13:1–21:45 As he had promised, God brought Israel into the land. Joshua next turned his attention to the allotment of the land to Israel’s tribes. • The tribal allotments gave geographical reality to the Israelites’ covenant with God and expressed the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Because God owned the land, the apportionment to the tribes was a gift. God gave them the land to dwell in and directed its distribution. • In these lists of tribal allotments, the autho...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253393,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-14<\/strong> <em>Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad<\/em> had asked Moses for their inheritance <em>on the east side of the Jordan<\/em> in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","summary_en":"13:8-14 Half the tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad had asked Moses for their inheritance on the east side of the Jordan in the land that had been the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Num 21:21-35; 32:1-42). In return, they had helped the rest of Israel take possession of their inheritance west of the Jordan (Josh 1:12-18; 4:12-13). Here, the author confirmed their possession of these lands.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":2760,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aroer","title_en":"Aroer","content_ro":"<h3>AROER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34).<\/li>\n<p>Aroer was the hub city for a number of villages (Jgs 11:26) and was the city from which the census began under King David (2 Sm 24:5). The Moabites gained control of it during the later monarchy and kept it until the time of Jeremiah (Jer 48:19). King Hazael of Damascus captured Aroer, assuring Syrian control of Transjordan (2 Kgs 10:33).<\/p>\n<p>Aroer has been identified with a mound beside the village ’Ara’ir, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Dibon on the east side of the ancient north-south Transjordan highway.<\/p>\n<li>2. City assigned to Gad’s tribe (Jos 13:25), mentioned as a point of reference in Jephthah’s victory over the Ammonites (Jgs 11:33). This Aroer has been tentatively placed in the area northwest of Amman and east of Rabbah.<\/li>\n<li>3. City in the Negev Desert area of Judah. Aroer was one of the villages receiving spoil taken in David’s victory over the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:28). Two of David’s “mighty men” were sons of Hotham the Aroerite (1 Chr 11:44). This Aroer has been identified with Khirbet ’Ar’areh, located about 12 miles (19 kilometers) southeast of Beersheba.<\/li>\n<li>4. City near Damascus (Is 17:2). The Hebrew text reads “the cities of Aroer,” but the Septuagint (ancient Greek OT) has “her cities for ever” (a reading adopted by the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AROER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34).<\/li>\n<p>Aroer was the hub city for a number of villages (Jgs 11:26) and was the city from which the census began under King David (2 Sm 24:5). The Moabites gained control of it during the later monarchy and kept it until the time of Jeremiah (Jer 48:19). King Hazael of Damascus captured Aroer, assuring Syrian control of Transjordan (2 Kgs 10:33).<\/p>\n<p>Aroer has been identified with a mound beside the village ’Ara’ir, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Dibon on the east side of the ancient north-south Transjordan highway.<\/p>\n<li>2. City assigned to Gad’s tribe (Jos 13:25), mentioned as a point of reference in Jephthah’s victory over the Ammonites (Jgs 11:33). This Aroer has been tentatively placed in the area northwest of Amman and east of Rabbah.<\/li>\n<li>3. City in the Negev Desert area of Judah. Aroer was one of the villages receiving spoil taken in David’s victory over the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:28). Two of David’s “mighty men” were sons of Hotham the Aroerite (1 Chr 11:44). This Aroer has been identified with Khirbet ’Ar’areh, located about 12 miles (19 kilometers) southeast of Beersheba.<\/li>\n<li>4. City near Damascus (Is 17:2). The Hebrew text reads “the cities of Aroer,” but the Septuagint (ancient Greek OT) has “her cities for ever” (a reading adopted by the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AROER 1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34). Aroe...","summary_en":"AROER 1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34). Aroe...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24905,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Medeba","title_en":"Medeba","content_ro":"<h3>MEDEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite town in the fertile plain northeast of the Dead Sea, about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) south of Philadelphia (modern Amman). It was situated 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Heshbon on the Roman road to Kerak.<\/p>\n<p>Here the Amorites defeated Moab (Nm 21:30). Later, Israel defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, at Medeba and assigned it to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:9, 16). At this place David routed an Aramean army hired by the Ammonites to attack his forces (1 Chr 19:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Moabite Stone, the town was once controlled by Omri and Ahab of Israel; however, when Mesha reasserted Moabite dominance in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, he rebuilt Medeba and other Moabite cities. Medeba is named in Isaiah’s prophecies against Moab (Is 15:2). In later times Joram and Jehoshaphat made unsuccessful attempts at capturing this city.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEDEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite town in the fertile plain northeast of the Dead Sea, about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) south of Philadelphia (modern Amman). It was situated 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Heshbon on the Roman road to Kerak.<\/p>\n<p>Here the Amorites defeated Moab (Nm 21:30). Later, Israel defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, at Medeba and assigned it to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:9, 16). At this place David routed an Aramean army hired by the Ammonites to attack his forces (1 Chr 19:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Moabite Stone, the town was once controlled by Omri and Ahab of Israel; however, when Mesha reasserted Moabite dominance in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, he rebuilt Medeba and other Moabite cities. Medeba is named in Isaiah’s prophecies against Moab (Is 15:2). In later times Joram and Jehoshaphat made unsuccessful attempts at capturing this city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEDEBA Moabite town in the fertile plain northeast of the Dead Sea, about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) south of Philadelphia (modern Amman). It was situated 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Heshbon on the Roman road to Kerak. Here the Amorites defeated Moab (Nm 21:30). Later, Israel defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, at Medeba and assigned it to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:9, 16). At this place David routed an Aramean army hired by the Ammonites to attack his forces (1 Chr 19:7). According to th...","summary_en":"MEDEBA Moabite town in the fertile plain northeast of the Dead Sea, about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) south of Philadelphia (modern Amman). It was situated 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Heshbon on the Roman road to Kerak. Here the Amorites defeated Moab (Nm 21:30). Later, Israel defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, at Medeba and assigned it to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:9, 16). At this place David routed an Aramean army hired by the Ammonites to attack his forces (1 Chr 19:7). According to th...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":35350,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sihon","title_en":"Sihon","content_ro":"<h3>SIHON<\/h3>\n<p>King of the Amorites who ruled in Heshbon, about 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) east of the north end of the Dead Sea. His defeat by Israel under Moses, together with that of Og, king of Bashan, is frequently mentioned in OT prose and poetry, in narrative and song (Dt 1:4; 2:26-37; 4:46; 29:7; 31:4; Jos 2:10; 9:10; 12:2-6; 13:10-12). In the eyes of the sacred writers, this dual defeat is so significant that it can be ranked with the exodus as one of the singular manifestations of God’s saving intervention on behalf of his people (Pss 135:11; 136:19-20), and as evidence of his everlasting love for them. In the postexilic period this event is recalled in prayer as a pleading ground for God’s continuing mercy to the returned exiles (Neh 9:22).<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel’s arrival in Transjordan, Sihon had conquered Moab’s territory as far south as the Arnon River (Nm 21:26). This conquest gives rise to a piece of ancient poetry that is incorporated into sacred Scripture (vv 27-30). Sihon’s realm extends from the Arnon on the south to the Jabbok on the north, with the Jordan as its western boundary. It also includes the Jordan Valley as far as the Sea of Kinnereth (Jos 12:2-3), comprising part of the region known as Gilead. On the east it extends toward the desert and touches on Ammonite land.<\/p>\n<p>Sihon’s refusal to grant Israel passage through his domain is similar to that of Edom (cf. Nm 21:23 with 20:20). However, Sihon exhibits overt hostility toward Israel. Sihon was defeated and killed at Jahaz; his country was occupied by Israel. Subsequently, it was distributed to the tribes of Gad and Reuben (cf. Nm 32:33-38; Jos 13:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIHON<\/h3>\n<p>King of the Amorites who ruled in Heshbon, about 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) east of the north end of the Dead Sea. His defeat by Israel under Moses, together with that of Og, king of Bashan, is frequently mentioned in OT prose and poetry, in narrative and song (Dt 1:4; 2:26-37; 4:46; 29:7; 31:4; Jos 2:10; 9:10; 12:2-6; 13:10-12). In the eyes of the sacred writers, this dual defeat is so significant that it can be ranked with the exodus as one of the singular manifestations of God’s saving intervention on behalf of his people (Pss 135:11; 136:19-20), and as evidence of his everlasting love for them. In the postexilic period this event is recalled in prayer as a pleading ground for God’s continuing mercy to the returned exiles (Neh 9:22).<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel’s arrival in Transjordan, Sihon had conquered Moab’s territory as far south as the Arnon River (Nm 21:26). This conquest gives rise to a piece of ancient poetry that is incorporated into sacred Scripture (vv 27-30). Sihon’s realm extends from the Arnon on the south to the Jabbok on the north, with the Jordan as its western boundary. It also includes the Jordan Valley as far as the Sea of Kinnereth (Jos 12:2-3), comprising part of the region known as Gilead. On the east it extends toward the desert and touches on Ammonite land.<\/p>\n<p>Sihon’s refusal to grant Israel passage through his domain is similar to that of Edom (cf. Nm 21:23 with 20:20). However, Sihon exhibits overt hostility toward Israel. Sihon was defeated and killed at Jahaz; his country was occupied by Israel. Subsequently, it was distributed to the tribes of Gad and Reuben (cf. Nm 32:33-38; Jos 13:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIHON King of the Amorites who ruled in Heshbon, about 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) east of the north end of the Dead Sea. His defeat by Israel under Moses, together with that of Og, king of Bashan, is frequently mentioned in OT prose and poetry, in narrative and song (Dt 1:4; 2:26-37; 4:46; 29:7; 31:4; Jos 2:10; 9:10; 12:2-6; 13:10-12). In the eyes of the sacred writers, this dual defeat is so significant that it can be ranked with the exodus as one of the singular manifestations of God’s savi...","summary_en":"SIHON King of the Amorites who ruled in Heshbon, about 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) east of the north end of the Dead Sea. His defeat by Israel under Moses, together with that of Og, king of Bashan, is frequently mentioned in OT prose and poetry, in narrative and song (Dt 1:4; 2:26-37; 4:46; 29:7; 31:4; Jos 2:10; 9:10; 12:2-6; 13:10-12). In the eyes of the sacred writers, this dual defeat is so significant that it can be ranked with the exodus as one of the singular manifestations of God’s savi...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":13704,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Geshurites Geshur","title_en":"Geshurites Geshur","content_ro":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","summary_en":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16257,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mount Hermon","title_en":"Mount Hermon","content_ro":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","summary_en":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16267,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hermonite*","title_en":"Hermonite*","content_ro":"<h3>HERMONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV mistranslation for Hermon (Mount) in Psalm 42:6. Mt Hermon, a sacred site since antiquity, lies on the northernmost boundary of Joshua’s conquest (Jos 12:5; 13:11). <em>See<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HERMONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV mistranslation for Hermon (Mount) in Psalm 42:6. Mt Hermon, a sacred site since antiquity, lies on the northernmost boundary of Joshua’s conquest (Jos 12:5; 13:11). <em>See<\/em> Hermon, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HERMONITE* KJV mistranslation for Hermon (Mount) in Psalm 42:6. Mt Hermon, a sacred site since antiquity, lies on the northernmost boundary of Joshua’s conquest (Jos 12:5; 13:11). See Hermon, Mount.","summary_en":"HERMONITE* KJV mistranslation for Hermon (Mount) in Psalm 42:6. Mt Hermon, a sacred site since antiquity, lies on the northernmost boundary of Joshua’s conquest (Jos 12:5; 13:11). See Hermon, Mount.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23738,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maachah* (Place) Maacah","title_en":"Maachah* (Place) Maacah","content_ro":"<h3>MAACAH, MAACHAH* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Small kingdom in northern Transjordan alternately named Aram-Maacah in 1 Chronicles 19:6 (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syria-maachah”). According to Joshua 13:11, the states of Geshur and Maacah were between Gilead and Mt Hermon and they bordered the kingdom of Og, ruler of Bashan (Jos 12:4-5). Its people were reckoned as descendants of Nahor (Gn 22:24) and were the southernmost of the Nahorite tribes.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aram (Person) #2; Aram (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAACAH, MAACHAH* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Small kingdom in northern Transjordan alternately named Aram-Maacah in 1 Chronicles 19:6 (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syria-maachah”). According to Joshua 13:11, the states of Geshur and Maacah were between Gilead and Mt Hermon and they bordered the kingdom of Og, ruler of Bashan (Jos 12:4-5). Its people were reckoned as descendants of Nahor (Gn 22:24) and were the southernmost of the Nahorite tribes.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aram (Person) #2; Aram (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAACAH, MAACHAH* (Place) Small kingdom in northern Transjordan alternately named Aram-Maacah in 1 Chronicles 19:6 (kjv “Syria-maachah”). According to Joshua 13:11, the states of Geshur and Maacah were between Gilead and Mt Hermon and they bordered the kingdom of Og, ruler of Bashan (Jos 12:4-5). Its people were reckoned as descendants of Nahor (Gn 22:24) and were the southernmost of the Nahorite tribes. See also Aram (Person) #2; Aram (Place).","summary_en":"MAACAH, MAACHAH* (Place) Small kingdom in northern Transjordan alternately named Aram-Maacah in 1 Chronicles 19:6 (kjv “Syria-maachah”). According to Joshua 13:11, the states of Geshur and Maacah were between Gilead and Mt Hermon and they bordered the kingdom of Og, ruler of Bashan (Jos 12:4-5). Its people were reckoned as descendants of Nahor (Gn 22:24) and were the southernmost of the Nahorite tribes. See also Aram (Person) #2; Aram (Place).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23743,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maacathite, Maachathi*, Maachathite*","title_en":"Maacathite, Maachathi*, Maachathite*","content_ro":"<h3>MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite.<\/p>\n<p>Their unfriendliness persisted throughout Israel’s history. When Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, Jaazaniah, the son of a Maacathite, sought to join Ishmael the Ammonite against Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had left to govern the city (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite.<\/p>\n<p>Their unfriendliness persisted throughout Israel’s history. When Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, Jaazaniah, the son of a Maacathite, sought to join Ishmael the Ammonite against Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had left to govern the city (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE* People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13). From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite. Their ...","summary_en":"MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE* People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13). From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite. Their ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33548,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Salcah*, Salchah*, Salecah","title_en":"Salcah*, Salchah*, Salecah","content_ro":"<h3>SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH<\/h3>\n<p>City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the <span>kjv<\/span>) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH<\/h3>\n<p>City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the <span>kjv<\/span>) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the kjv) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.","summary_en":"SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the kjv) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":3007,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashtaroth, Ashterathite*","title_en":"Ashtaroth, Ashterathite*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHTAROTH, ASHTERATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Town of Bashan, named along with Edrei as the home of King Og (Dt 1:4; Jos 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). Ashtaroth is the plural form of Ashtoreth, the name of the Canaanite fertility goddess who was worshiped there. After Og was defeated by the Israelites (Dt 3:1-11), Moses gave Ashtaroth to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:12, 31; Dt 3:13). Later, it became a Levitical city inhabited by the Gershonites (1 Chr 6:71). Ashteroth-karnaim (Gn 14:5) is probably the same town as Ashtaroth. Its location is usually identified with Tell Ashtarah, 21 miles (34 kilometers) east of the Sea of Galilee. In 1 Chronicles 11:44 one of David’s mighty men, Uzzia, is called an Ashterathite.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHTAROTH, ASHTERATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Town of Bashan, named along with Edrei as the home of King Og (Dt 1:4; Jos 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). Ashtaroth is the plural form of Ashtoreth, the name of the Canaanite fertility goddess who was worshiped there. After Og was defeated by the Israelites (Dt 3:1-11), Moses gave Ashtaroth to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:12, 31; Dt 3:13). Later, it became a Levitical city inhabited by the Gershonites (1 Chr 6:71). Ashteroth-karnaim (Gn 14:5) is probably the same town as Ashtaroth. Its location is usually identified with Tell Ashtarah, 21 miles (34 kilometers) east of the Sea of Galilee. In 1 Chronicles 11:44 one of David’s mighty men, Uzzia, is called an Ashterathite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHTAROTH, ASHTERATHITE* Town of Bashan, named along with Edrei as the home of King Og (Dt 1:4; Jos 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). Ashtaroth is the plural form of Ashtoreth, the name of the Canaanite fertility goddess who was worshiped there. After Og was defeated by the Israelites (Dt 3:1-11), Moses gave Ashtaroth to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:12, 31; Dt 3:13). Later, it became a Levitical city inhabited by the Gershonites (1 Chr 6:71). Ashteroth-karnaim (Gn 14:5) is probably the same town ...","summary_en":"ASHTAROTH, ASHTERATHITE* Town of Bashan, named along with Edrei as the home of King Og (Dt 1:4; Jos 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). Ashtaroth is the plural form of Ashtoreth, the name of the Canaanite fertility goddess who was worshiped there. After Og was defeated by the Israelites (Dt 3:1-11), Moses gave Ashtaroth to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:12, 31; Dt 3:13). Later, it became a Levitical city inhabited by the Gershonites (1 Chr 6:71). Ashteroth-karnaim (Gn 14:5) is probably the same town ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10129,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edrei","title_en":"Edrei","content_ro":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","summary_ro":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","summary_en":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13740,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giants","title_en":"Giants","content_ro":"<h3>GIANTS<\/h3>\n<p>English translation of four different Hebrew words. One of these words occurs in Job 16:14, where the Hebrew word is translated “warrior” in the <span>rsv<\/span>, and “giant” in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Another Hebrew word is translated “giants” in the <span>nlt<\/span> and “Nephilim” (a transliteration of the Hebrew) in the <span>rsv<\/span> (Gn 6:4; Nm 13:33). The original meaning of this Hebrew term is unknown, but it seems to be used of a group or race of people. Since none of the terms translated “giants” has that actual meaning, we cannot be sure that the Nephilim were of unusual physical stature.<\/p>\n<p>In several passages the <span>kjv<\/span> translates “giants” and the <span>rsv<\/span> translates “Rephaim” (e.g., Dt 2:20; 3:11; Jos 12:4). That word, usually in plural form, refers to several tribes of people who inhabited Palestine and who may have been unusually large in physical size. They included the Anakim of Judah’s coastal area and hill country around Hebron (Dt 2:11), the Emim of Moab (v 10), the Zamzummim of Ammon (v 20), and the inhabitants of Bashan (3:11). The word also appears in Joshua (Jos 12:4; 13:12; 15:8; 17:15; 18:16). Some interpreters have suggested that these people were the original inhabitants of Palestine who were distinct tribes of tall people and who were eventually conquered and absorbed by the Canaanites, Philistines, Hebrews, and other invading peoples. Other interpreters contend that they were not distinct racial tribes but were individuals of great stature, perhaps the result of disease, who were found among the various races and tribes of Palestine. Neither contention can be established with certainty. Another Hebrew term is translated “giant” in both the <span>kjv<\/span> and <span>nlt<\/span> (2 Sm 21:16-22; 1 Chr 20:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the most famous giant in biblical literature is Goliath of Gath, the Philistine soldier who challenged King Saul’s army at the valley of Elah and caused them to be dismayed and afraid (1 Sm 17). He is said to have been six cubits and a span tall, which has been variously interpreted as being between seven and a half and nine and a half feet (2.3 to 2.9 meters). David’s defeat of Goliath brought the youth prominence in Israel (18:5-7). Goliath is not referred to in the text as a “giant,” but his height marks him as one of gigantic size. King Og of Bashan was another unusually tall person (Dt 3:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nephilim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIANTS<\/h3>\n<p>English translation of four different Hebrew words. One of these words occurs in Job 16:14, where the Hebrew word is translated “warrior” in the <span>rsv<\/span>, and “giant” in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Another Hebrew word is translated “giants” in the <span>nlt<\/span> and “Nephilim” (a transliteration of the Hebrew) in the <span>rsv<\/span> (Gn 6:4; Nm 13:33). The original meaning of this Hebrew term is unknown, but it seems to be used of a group or race of people. Since none of the terms translated “giants” has that actual meaning, we cannot be sure that the Nephilim were of unusual physical stature.<\/p>\n<p>In several passages the <span>kjv<\/span> translates “giants” and the <span>rsv<\/span> translates “Rephaim” (e.g., Dt 2:20; 3:11; Jos 12:4). That word, usually in plural form, refers to several tribes of people who inhabited Palestine and who may have been unusually large in physical size. They included the Anakim of Judah’s coastal area and hill country around Hebron (Dt 2:11), the Emim of Moab (v 10), the Zamzummim of Ammon (v 20), and the inhabitants of Bashan (3:11). The word also appears in Joshua (Jos 12:4; 13:12; 15:8; 17:15; 18:16). Some interpreters have suggested that these people were the original inhabitants of Palestine who were distinct tribes of tall people and who were eventually conquered and absorbed by the Canaanites, Philistines, Hebrews, and other invading peoples. Other interpreters contend that they were not distinct racial tribes but were individuals of great stature, perhaps the result of disease, who were found among the various races and tribes of Palestine. Neither contention can be established with certainty. Another Hebrew term is translated “giant” in both the <span>kjv<\/span> and <span>nlt<\/span> (2 Sm 21:16-22; 1 Chr 20:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the most famous giant in biblical literature is Goliath of Gath, the Philistine soldier who challenged King Saul’s army at the valley of Elah and caused them to be dismayed and afraid (1 Sm 17). He is said to have been six cubits and a span tall, which has been variously interpreted as being between seven and a half and nine and a half feet (2.3 to 2.9 meters). David’s defeat of Goliath brought the youth prominence in Israel (18:5-7). Goliath is not referred to in the text as a “giant,” but his height marks him as one of gigantic size. King Og of Bashan was another unusually tall person (Dt 3:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nephilim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIANTS English translation of four different Hebrew words. One of these words occurs in Job 16:14, where the Hebrew word is translated “warrior” in the rsv, and “giant” in the kjv. Another Hebrew word is translated “giants” in the nlt and “Nephilim” (a transliteration of the Hebrew) in the rsv (Gn 6:4; Nm 13:33). The original meaning of this Hebrew term is unknown, but it seems to be used of a group or race of people. Since none of the terms translated “giants” has that actual meaning, we can...","summary_en":"GIANTS English translation of four different Hebrew words. One of these words occurs in Job 16:14, where the Hebrew word is translated “warrior” in the rsv, and “giant” in the kjv. Another Hebrew word is translated “giants” in the nlt and “Nephilim” (a transliteration of the Hebrew) in the rsv (Gn 6:4; Nm 13:33). The original meaning of this Hebrew term is unknown, but it seems to be used of a group or race of people. Since none of the terms translated “giants” has that actual meaning, we can...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28341,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Og","title_en":"Og","content_ro":"<h3>OG<\/h3>\n<p>King whose fame partly came from his being a giant. “King Og of Bashan was the last of the giant Rephaites. His iron bed was more than thirteen feet [4.1 meters] long and six feet [1.8 meters] wide” (Dt 3:11, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Og, king of Bashan, fell before Moses’ assault immediately after the defeat of King Sihon the Amorite (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan lay along the northern part of the Transjordan. Og’s land stretched northeastward from the lower course of the Jarmuk (Yarmuk) River, and lofty mountain ranges protected him on the east from scorching desert winds.<\/p>\n<p>Og and his people had several settlements, primarily Ashtaroth and Edrei (Jos 13:12). Og had fortified his land with 60 walled cities and was probably overconfident before Moses’ army. Moses completely destroyed the populace of those cities; he spared only the livestock and the spoils of war (Dt 3:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Three tribes of Israel found the Transjordan particularly suitable for grazing their herds. So at the defeat of Sihon and Og, Moses assigned the newly won lands to the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh (Nm 32:33; Jos 12:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OG<\/h3>\n<p>King whose fame partly came from his being a giant. “King Og of Bashan was the last of the giant Rephaites. His iron bed was more than thirteen feet [4.1 meters] long and six feet [1.8 meters] wide” (Dt 3:11, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Og, king of Bashan, fell before Moses’ assault immediately after the defeat of King Sihon the Amorite (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan lay along the northern part of the Transjordan. Og’s land stretched northeastward from the lower course of the Jarmuk (Yarmuk) River, and lofty mountain ranges protected him on the east from scorching desert winds.<\/p>\n<p>Og and his people had several settlements, primarily Ashtaroth and Edrei (Jos 13:12). Og had fortified his land with 60 walled cities and was probably overconfident before Moses’ army. Moses completely destroyed the populace of those cities; he spared only the livestock and the spoils of war (Dt 3:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Three tribes of Israel found the Transjordan particularly suitable for grazing their herds. So at the defeat of Sihon and Og, Moses assigned the newly won lands to the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh (Nm 32:33; Jos 12:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OG King whose fame partly came from his being a giant. “King Og of Bashan was the last of the giant Rephaites. His iron bed was more than thirteen feet [4.1 meters] long and six feet [1.8 meters] wide” (Dt 3:11, nlt). Og, king of Bashan, fell before Moses’ assault immediately after the defeat of King Sihon the Amorite (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan lay along the northern part of the Transjordan. Og’s land stretched northeastward from the lower course of the Jarmuk (Yarmuk) River, and lofty mountain ra...","summary_en":"OG King whose fame partly came from his being a giant. “King Og of Bashan was the last of the giant Rephaites. His iron bed was more than thirteen feet [4.1 meters] long and six feet [1.8 meters] wide” (Dt 3:11, nlt). Og, king of Bashan, fell before Moses’ assault immediately after the defeat of King Sihon the Amorite (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan lay along the northern part of the Transjordan. Og’s land stretched northeastward from the lower course of the Jarmuk (Yarmuk) River, and lofty mountain ra...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32751,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rephaim*","title_en":"Rephaim*","content_ro":"<h3>REPHAIM*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rephaim<\/span> of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim, and Horite peoples, were defeated by Kedorlaomer and his allied armies (Gn 14:5). They were one of nine nations living in Palestine at the time when the Lord promised to give the land to Abraham’s descendants (15:20). The ancient Rephaim were called the Emim by the Moabites and the Zamzummin by the Ammonites; they were comparable in size and number to the giant Anakim (Dt 2:11, 20). Og, king of Bashan, represented the last of the Rephaim. He was later killed and his kingdom dispossessed by the Israelites under Moses (Dt 3:11; Jos 12:4; 13:12). Perhaps the giants among the Philistines were descendants of the Rephaim (2 Sm 21; 1 Chr 20).<\/li>\n<li><em>See also<\/em> Giants.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REPHAIM*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rephaim<\/span> of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim, and Horite peoples, were defeated by Kedorlaomer and his allied armies (Gn 14:5). They were one of nine nations living in Palestine at the time when the Lord promised to give the land to Abraham’s descendants (15:20). The ancient Rephaim were called the Emim by the Moabites and the Zamzummin by the Ammonites; they were comparable in size and number to the giant Anakim (Dt 2:11, 20). Og, king of Bashan, represented the last of the Rephaim. He was later killed and his kingdom dispossessed by the Israelites under Moses (Dt 3:11; Jos 12:4; 13:12). Perhaps the giants among the Philistines were descendants of the Rephaim (2 Sm 21; 1 Chr 20).<\/li>\n<li><em>See also<\/em> Giants.<\/li>","summary_ro":"REPHAIM* 1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9). 2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim...","summary_en":"REPHAIM* 1. A Hebrew word referring to shades or departed spirits whose dwelling place was the habitation of Sheol (Prv 2:18; 9:18; 21:16). The rephaim of the underworld suffered anguish (Jb 26:5) and were separated from God (Ps 88:10-12) and all living people (Is 26:14). Their immaterial being bore a weakened shadowlike resemblance to their former corporeality (Is 14:9). 2. A mighty people tall in stature living in Palestine during the days of Abraham. The Rephaim, along with the Zuzim, Emim...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":13706,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Geshurites Geshur","title_en":"Geshurites Geshur","content_ro":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GESHUR, GESHURITES<\/h3>\n<li>1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Israel did not drive them out (v 13). Later, Geshur and Aram took at least 60 towns from the Israelites in Transjordan (1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p>David married Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and she bore Absalom (2 Sm 3:3; 1 Chr 3:2). After the vengeful murder of Amnon, Absalom fled to Geshur for refuge with his grandfather, Talmai (2 Sm 13:37) and stayed there three years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>\n<li>2. Name of an area and its people south of Philistia. Among the lands not yet taken at the time of Joshua’s advanced old age are listed “all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north” (Jos 13:2-3, <span>niv<\/span>). When David lived at Ziklag, in the territory of Achish, king of Gath, David made raids upon the Geshurites and others “as far as Shur, to the land of Egypt” (1 Sm 27:8).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","summary_en":"GESHUR, GESHURITES 1. District and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River, in the tribal allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:11). Most Bible geographers place it near Bashan, on the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. In their conquest of the land, the Israelites defeated Og, king of Bashan, and Jair of Manasseh took Bashan as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites (Dt 3:14). Though the land of the Geshurites was given to the Transjordanian tribes (Jos 13:11), Is...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20688,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23744,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maacathite, Maachathi*, Maachathite*","title_en":"Maacathite, Maachathi*, Maachathite*","content_ro":"<h3>MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite.<\/p>\n<p>Their unfriendliness persisted throughout Israel’s history. When Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, Jaazaniah, the son of a Maacathite, sought to join Ishmael the Ammonite against Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had left to govern the city (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite.<\/p>\n<p>Their unfriendliness persisted throughout Israel’s history. When Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, Jaazaniah, the son of a Maacathite, sought to join Ishmael the Ammonite against Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had left to govern the city (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maacah, Maachah (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE* People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13). From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite. Their ...","summary_en":"MAACATHITE, MAACHATHI*, MAACHATHITE* People of Maacah who held the territory neighboring the Geshurites and the boundary of land granted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Dt 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:11). It was taken over by Jair, who with his companions were unable to dislodge the Maacathites and Geshurites living among them (Jos 13:13). From the Maacathites came Eliphelet, who joined David’s army of “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:34). The parallel passage in 1 Chronicles 11:36 calls him a Mekerathite. Their ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":20811,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100758,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128384,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183636,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198079,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238888,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253395,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> The <em>tribe of Levi<\/em> inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","summary_en":"13:14 The tribe of Levi inherited no tribal land of its own (see Deut 18:1-8). Levitical cities were located in the territories of the other tribes (Josh 21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":20808,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100759,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128385,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183637,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198081,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238889,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253397,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-23<\/strong> Because <em>Reuben,<\/em> Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","summary_en":"13:15-23 Because Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son by Leah (Gen 29:32), forfeited his birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22), the inheritance of his tribe was not of central importance. Although the tribe received a fertile portion of land, it was difficult to defend from neighboring nations. The tribe of Reuben eventually lost the southern portion to Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":2757,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arnon","title_en":"Arnon","content_ro":"<h3>ARNON<\/h3>\n<p>River of Transjordan, the present Wadi el-Mojib, running from east to west through a canyon with walls 1,500 feet (457 meters) high into the Dead Sea. At the time of the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the gorge served as a natural border between Moab to the south and the Ammonite kingdoms to the north (Nm 21:13-15). After the division of the land under Joshua the river Arnon became the southern boundary of Reuben’s territory (Dt 3:12, 16; Jos 13:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARNON<\/h3>\n<p>River of Transjordan, the present Wadi el-Mojib, running from east to west through a canyon with walls 1,500 feet (457 meters) high into the Dead Sea. At the time of the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the gorge served as a natural border between Moab to the south and the Ammonite kingdoms to the north (Nm 21:13-15). After the division of the land under Joshua the river Arnon became the southern boundary of Reuben’s territory (Dt 3:12, 16; Jos 13:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARNON River of Transjordan, the present Wadi el-Mojib, running from east to west through a canyon with walls 1,500 feet (457 meters) high into the Dead Sea. At the time of the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the gorge served as a natural border between Moab to the south and the Ammonite kingdoms to the north (Nm 21:13-15). After the division of the land under Joshua the river Arnon became the southern boundary of Reuben’s territory (Dt 3:12, 16; Jos 13:16).","summary_en":"ARNON River of Transjordan, the present Wadi el-Mojib, running from east to west through a canyon with walls 1,500 feet (457 meters) high into the Dead Sea. At the time of the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the gorge served as a natural border between Moab to the south and the Ammonite kingdoms to the north (Nm 21:13-15). After the division of the land under Joshua the river Arnon became the southern boundary of Reuben’s territory (Dt 3:12, 16; Jos 13:16).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":3401,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baal-Meon","title_en":"Baal-Meon","content_ro":"<h3>BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 <span>BC<\/span> it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 <span>BC<\/span> it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAAL-MEON City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 BC it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century BC (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century BC.","summary_en":"BAAL-MEON City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 BC it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century BC (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century BC.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3570,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bamah","title_en":"Bamah","content_ro":"<h3>BAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see <span>nlt<\/span>). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a military commander wished to control in battle. Possession of an enemy’s “heights” was synonymous with subjection of that enemy (Dt 33:29; Ez 36:2). The word seems to combine both literal and figurative connotations in several references to Jerusalem, a “high place” in ruin overgrown with scrub vegetation (Mi 3:12; see also Jer 26:18; Ez 36:1-2). “High place” was also a special, or technical, term in Canaanite religion, designating a local shrine on a hill near a town or village, in contrast to the large temples located throughout the land.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see <span>nlt<\/span>). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a military commander wished to control in battle. Possession of an enemy’s “heights” was synonymous with subjection of that enemy (Dt 33:29; Ez 36:2). The word seems to combine both literal and figurative connotations in several references to Jerusalem, a “high place” in ruin overgrown with scrub vegetation (Mi 3:12; see also Jer 26:18; Ez 36:1-2). “High place” was also a special, or technical, term in Canaanite religion, designating a local shrine on a hill near a town or village, in contrast to the large temples located throughout the land.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAMAH Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see nlt). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17). Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a milit...","summary_en":"BAMAH Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see nlt). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17). Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a milit...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3578,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bamoth-Baal Bamoth","title_en":"Bamoth-Baal Bamoth","content_ro":"<h3>BAMOTH, BAMOTH-BAAL<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Moab allotted to Reuben’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 13:17, called Bamoth-baal). It had been one of Israel’s last encampments on the route into Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 21:19-20). Bamoth-baal, a mountain or high place, was probably a shrine to the Canaanite god Baal. King Balak of Moab took the prophet Balaam there to try to get him to curse Balak’s enemies, the people of Israel (22:41–23:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAMOTH, BAMOTH-BAAL<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Moab allotted to Reuben’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 13:17, called Bamoth-baal). It had been one of Israel’s last encampments on the route into Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 21:19-20). Bamoth-baal, a mountain or high place, was probably a shrine to the Canaanite god Baal. King Balak of Moab took the prophet Balaam there to try to get him to curse Balak’s enemies, the people of Israel (22:41–23:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAMOTH, BAMOTH-BAAL Town in Moab allotted to Reuben’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 13:17, called Bamoth-baal). It had been one of Israel’s last encampments on the route into Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 21:19-20). Bamoth-baal, a mountain or high place, was probably a shrine to the Canaanite god Baal. King Balak of Moab took the prophet Balaam there to try to get him to curse Balak’s enemies, the people of Israel (22:41–23:13).","summary_en":"BAMOTH, BAMOTH-BAAL Town in Moab allotted to Reuben’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 13:17, called Bamoth-baal). It had been one of Israel’s last encampments on the route into Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 21:19-20). Bamoth-baal, a mountain or high place, was probably a shrine to the Canaanite god Baal. King Balak of Moab took the prophet Balaam there to try to get him to curse Balak’s enemies, the people of Israel (22:41–23:13).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4419,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Baal-Meon","title_en":"Beth-Baal-Meon","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Baal-meon, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Joshua 13:17. <em>See<\/em> Baal-meon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Baal-meon, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Joshua 13:17. <em>See<\/em> Baal-meon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-BAAL-MEON Alternate name for Baal-meon, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Joshua 13:17. See Baal-meon.","summary_en":"BETH-BAAL-MEON Alternate name for Baal-meon, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Joshua 13:17. See Baal-meon.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9553,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dibon","title_en":"Dibon","content_ro":"<h3>DIBON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Moab, east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. It was located on the King’s Highway in Amorite territory and was a camping station for the Israelites during the exodus. Israel asked permission of Sihon, the Amorite king, to pass through his territory, but he refused. Israel then fought and defeated Sihon, thus gaining control of Dibon (Nm 21:30). Following the Hebrew conquest of Palestine and its division among the 12 tribes, Dibon was given to Gad (32:3, 34), being also referred to as Dibon-gad (33:45-46). One biblical reference assigns it to Reuben (Jos 13:17).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Moab under King Eglon oppressed Israel and apparently retook Dibon. It was probably recovered under the leadership of Ehud (Jgs 3:12-30). Subsequently, Dibon was ruled by Israel under King David (2 Sm 8:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the preexilic period Dibon was again under Moabite influence (Is 15:2; Jer 48:18, 22). Isaiah condemned Dibon (Dimon) as chief among the wicked cities of Moab (Is 15:9). Dimon is probably a play on words (from the root “blood”) predicting Dibon’s bloody and disastrous fate.<\/p>\n<p>In 1868 excavations uncovered the famous Moabite Stone at Dibon, erected by Mesha, king of Moab, who built “Qarhah” as his capital. This may have been a new capital city replacing Dibon, or a renaming of Dibon by Mesha. Most likely “Qarhah” referred to the fact that Dibon was built on two elevations. The higher one was Qarhah, the defensive citadel of the city, surrounded by a wall and possessing a water reservoir, several cisterns, the royal palace, and a shrine (“high place,” Is 15:2) to Chemosh, the principal god of Moab.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations conducted in 1950–56 at Dibon (modern Dhiban) uncovered remains of the city from a period about 3000 <span>BC<\/span>. Evidence indicated that it contained only a nomadic population in the period 2100–1300 <span>BC<\/span> and that it was settled again about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. The earliest excavations found five city walls, the oldest dating to about 3000 <span>BC<\/span>. The heaviest wall was from 7½ to almost 11 feet (2 to 3 meters) thick, built with large, well-squared blocks, and is considered to have been built in Mesha’s time.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in the Negev of Judah inhabited by Babylonian exiles who returned to Palestine during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DIBON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Moab, east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. It was located on the King’s Highway in Amorite territory and was a camping station for the Israelites during the exodus. Israel asked permission of Sihon, the Amorite king, to pass through his territory, but he refused. Israel then fought and defeated Sihon, thus gaining control of Dibon (Nm 21:30). Following the Hebrew conquest of Palestine and its division among the 12 tribes, Dibon was given to Gad (32:3, 34), being also referred to as Dibon-gad (33:45-46). One biblical reference assigns it to Reuben (Jos 13:17).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Moab under King Eglon oppressed Israel and apparently retook Dibon. It was probably recovered under the leadership of Ehud (Jgs 3:12-30). Subsequently, Dibon was ruled by Israel under King David (2 Sm 8:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the preexilic period Dibon was again under Moabite influence (Is 15:2; Jer 48:18, 22). Isaiah condemned Dibon (Dimon) as chief among the wicked cities of Moab (Is 15:9). Dimon is probably a play on words (from the root “blood”) predicting Dibon’s bloody and disastrous fate.<\/p>\n<p>In 1868 excavations uncovered the famous Moabite Stone at Dibon, erected by Mesha, king of Moab, who built “Qarhah” as his capital. This may have been a new capital city replacing Dibon, or a renaming of Dibon by Mesha. Most likely “Qarhah” referred to the fact that Dibon was built on two elevations. The higher one was Qarhah, the defensive citadel of the city, surrounded by a wall and possessing a water reservoir, several cisterns, the royal palace, and a shrine (“high place,” Is 15:2) to Chemosh, the principal god of Moab.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations conducted in 1950–56 at Dibon (modern Dhiban) uncovered remains of the city from a period about 3000 <span>BC<\/span>. Evidence indicated that it contained only a nomadic population in the period 2100–1300 <span>BC<\/span> and that it was settled again about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. The earliest excavations found five city walls, the oldest dating to about 3000 <span>BC<\/span>. The heaviest wall was from 7½ to almost 11 feet (2 to 3 meters) thick, built with large, well-squared blocks, and is considered to have been built in Mesha’s time.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in the Negev of Judah inhabited by Babylonian exiles who returned to Palestine during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"DIBON 1. City in Moab, east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. It was located on the King’s Highway in Amorite territory and was a camping station for the Israelites during the exodus. Israel asked permission of Sihon, the Amorite king, to pass through his territory, but he refused. Israel then fought and defeated Sihon, thus gaining control of Dibon (Nm 21:30). Following the Hebrew conquest of Palestine and its division among the 12 tribes, Dibon was given to Gad (32:3, 34), being...","summary_en":"DIBON 1. City in Moab, east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. It was located on the King’s Highway in Amorite territory and was a camping station for the Israelites during the exodus. Israel asked permission of Sihon, the Amorite king, to pass through his territory, but he refused. Israel then fought and defeated Sihon, thus gaining control of Dibon (Nm 21:30). Following the Hebrew conquest of Palestine and its division among the 12 tribes, Dibon was given to Gad (32:3, 34), being...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16311,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heshbon","title_en":"Heshbon","content_ro":"<h3>HESHBON<\/h3>\n<p>Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of Gad. The Moabites soon contested Israel’s claim to the territory, and in the period of the judges it changed hands at least once (Jgs 3:12; 1 Sm 12:9-11). Israel controlled Heshbon until around 853 <span>BC<\/span>, when it was occupied by Mesha, king of Moab. Subsequently, it was mentioned in preexilic prophetic censures of the Moabites (cf. Is 15:4; 16:8-9; Jer 48:2, 33-34). Jeremiah 49:3 seems to indicate that Heshbon was finally occupied by the neighboring Ammonites.<\/p>\n<p>It was an important Nabatean city in the Greek period, and it was conquered by the Jews in the campaigns of Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). In the Roman period it was incorporated into the province of Syria.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HESHBON<\/h3>\n<p>Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of Gad. The Moabites soon contested Israel’s claim to the territory, and in the period of the judges it changed hands at least once (Jgs 3:12; 1 Sm 12:9-11). Israel controlled Heshbon until around 853 <span>BC<\/span>, when it was occupied by Mesha, king of Moab. Subsequently, it was mentioned in preexilic prophetic censures of the Moabites (cf. Is 15:4; 16:8-9; Jer 48:2, 33-34). Jeremiah 49:3 seems to indicate that Heshbon was finally occupied by the neighboring Ammonites.<\/p>\n<p>It was an important Nabatean city in the Greek period, and it was conquered by the Jews in the campaigns of Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). In the Roman period it was incorporated into the province of Syria.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HESHBON Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of...","summary_en":"HESHBON Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":18311,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jahaz","title_en":"Jahaz","content_ro":"<h3>JAHAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Town east of the Dead Sea (in modern Jordan) where the Israelites defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, when he refused to permit them to pass through his land (Nm 21:23; Dt 2:32; Jgs 11:20). According to Joshua 13:18, Moses gave the town to Reuben’s tribe as part of its allotment. The town with its surrounding pasturelands was given to the Merarite Levites (Jos 21:36; 1 Chr 6:78).<\/p>\n<p>In later times, in prophetic oracles by both Isaiah (Is 15:4) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:21), it is referred to as a city in the land of Moab. This may indicate that it was taken from Israel by Moab (to whom it apparently belonged before Sihon conquered it). The town is mentioned on the Moabite Stone (known as the Dibon Stele and dating to c. 845 <span>BC<\/span>) as the place where Mesha, king of Moab, had lived while at war with Israel. According to Mesha, he took Jahaz from Israel and added it to his own territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAHAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Town east of the Dead Sea (in modern Jordan) where the Israelites defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, when he refused to permit them to pass through his land (Nm 21:23; Dt 2:32; Jgs 11:20). According to Joshua 13:18, Moses gave the town to Reuben’s tribe as part of its allotment. The town with its surrounding pasturelands was given to the Merarite Levites (Jos 21:36; 1 Chr 6:78).<\/p>\n<p>In later times, in prophetic oracles by both Isaiah (Is 15:4) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:21), it is referred to as a city in the land of Moab. This may indicate that it was taken from Israel by Moab (to whom it apparently belonged before Sihon conquered it). The town is mentioned on the Moabite Stone (known as the Dibon Stele and dating to c. 845 <span>BC<\/span>) as the place where Mesha, king of Moab, had lived while at war with Israel. According to Mesha, he took Jahaz from Israel and added it to his own territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAHAZ Town east of the Dead Sea (in modern Jordan) where the Israelites defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, when he refused to permit them to pass through his land (Nm 21:23; Dt 2:32; Jgs 11:20). According to Joshua 13:18, Moses gave the town to Reuben’s tribe as part of its allotment. The town with its surrounding pasturelands was given to the Merarite Levites (Jos 21:36; 1 Chr 6:78). In later times, in prophetic oracles by both Isaiah (Is 15:4) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:21), it is referred to ...","summary_en":"JAHAZ Town east of the Dead Sea (in modern Jordan) where the Israelites defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites, when he refused to permit them to pass through his land (Nm 21:23; Dt 2:32; Jgs 11:20). According to Joshua 13:18, Moses gave the town to Reuben’s tribe as part of its allotment. The town with its surrounding pasturelands was given to the Merarite Levites (Jos 21:36; 1 Chr 6:78). In later times, in prophetic oracles by both Isaiah (Is 15:4) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:21), it is referred to ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21546,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kedemoth","title_en":"Kedemoth","content_ro":"<h3>KEDEMOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City east of the Jordan, probably located on the upper course of the Arnon River. From the wilderness of Kedemoth, Moses sent messengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon, asking permission to pass peaceably through his land (Dt 2:26). In the division of the land, Kedemoth was given to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:18) and then set aside as one of the Levitical cities for the Merarites (Jos 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEDEMOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City east of the Jordan, probably located on the upper course of the Arnon River. From the wilderness of Kedemoth, Moses sent messengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon, asking permission to pass peaceably through his land (Dt 2:26). In the division of the land, Kedemoth was given to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:18) and then set aside as one of the Levitical cities for the Merarites (Jos 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEDEMOTH City east of the Jordan, probably located on the upper course of the Arnon River. From the wilderness of Kedemoth, Moses sent messengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon, asking permission to pass peaceably through his land (Dt 2:26). In the division of the land, Kedemoth was given to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:18) and then set aside as one of the Levitical cities for the Merarites (Jos 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). See also Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"KEDEMOTH City east of the Jordan, probably located on the upper course of the Arnon River. From the wilderness of Kedemoth, Moses sent messengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon, asking permission to pass peaceably through his land (Dt 2:26). In the division of the land, Kedemoth was given to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:18) and then set aside as one of the Levitical cities for the Merarites (Jos 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). See also Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25106,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mephaath","title_en":"Mephaath","content_ro":"<h3>MEPHAATH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities of Reuben’s tribe on the plain near Heshbon, which was allotted to the Merari family of Levites (Jos 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). Later, it was numbered among Moabite towns during Jeremiah’s ministry (Jer 48:21). It has been identified with modern Jawah, six miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Ammon.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEPHAATH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities of Reuben’s tribe on the plain near Heshbon, which was allotted to the Merari family of Levites (Jos 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). Later, it was numbered among Moabite towns during Jeremiah’s ministry (Jer 48:21). It has been identified with modern Jawah, six miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Ammon.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEPHAATH One of the cities of Reuben’s tribe on the plain near Heshbon, which was allotted to the Merari family of Levites (Jos 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). Later, it was numbered among Moabite towns during Jeremiah’s ministry (Jer 48:21). It has been identified with modern Jawah, six miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Ammon. See also Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"MEPHAATH One of the cities of Reuben’s tribe on the plain near Heshbon, which was allotted to the Merari family of Levites (Jos 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr 6:79). Later, it was numbered among Moabite towns during Jeremiah’s ministry (Jer 48:21). It has been identified with modern Jawah, six miles (9.7 kilometers) south of Ammon. See also Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":22148,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kiriathaim","title_en":"Kiriathaim","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIATHAIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town on the Moabite plateau, mentioned in the march of the four kings against the five (Gn 14:5) where the indigenous Emim were attacked. It was taken by the Israelites from Sihon (Nm 32:37) and included in Reuben’s inheritance (Jos 13:19). The Moabite Stone records that Sihon fortified the place after gaining control of the plateau; in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> it was still under Moabite control (Jer 48:1, 23; Ez 25:9). Eusebius placed it 10 Roman miles west of Medeba. Two identifications have been proposed—either Khirbet el-Qureiyeh or Qaryat el-Mukhaiyet, six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest and three miles (4.8 kilometers) northwest of Medeba respectively.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical town in Naphtali’s territory (1 Chr 6:76), called Kartan in Joshua 21:32; the latter is probably a dialectical variant. The suggested identification is with Khirbet el-Qurieyeh, northeast of ‘Ain Ibl in southern Lebanon.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIATHAIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town on the Moabite plateau, mentioned in the march of the four kings against the five (Gn 14:5) where the indigenous Emim were attacked. It was taken by the Israelites from Sihon (Nm 32:37) and included in Reuben’s inheritance (Jos 13:19). The Moabite Stone records that Sihon fortified the place after gaining control of the plateau; in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> it was still under Moabite control (Jer 48:1, 23; Ez 25:9). Eusebius placed it 10 Roman miles west of Medeba. Two identifications have been proposed—either Khirbet el-Qureiyeh or Qaryat el-Mukhaiyet, six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest and three miles (4.8 kilometers) northwest of Medeba respectively.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical town in Naphtali’s territory (1 Chr 6:76), called Kartan in Joshua 21:32; the latter is probably a dialectical variant. The suggested identification is with Khirbet el-Qurieyeh, northeast of ‘Ain Ibl in southern Lebanon.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIATHAIM 1. Town on the Moabite plateau, mentioned in the march of the four kings against the five (Gn 14:5) where the indigenous Emim were attacked. It was taken by the Israelites from Sihon (Nm 32:37) and included in Reuben’s inheritance (Jos 13:19). The Moabite Stone records that Sihon fortified the place after gaining control of the plateau; in the seventh century BC it was still under Moabite control (Jer 48:1, 23; Ez 25:9). Eusebius placed it 10 Roman miles west of Medeba. Two identif...","summary_en":"KIRIATHAIM 1. Town on the Moabite plateau, mentioned in the march of the four kings against the five (Gn 14:5) where the indigenous Emim were attacked. It was taken by the Israelites from Sihon (Nm 32:37) and included in Reuben’s inheritance (Jos 13:19). The Moabite Stone records that Sihon fortified the place after gaining control of the plateau; in the seventh century BC it was still under Moabite control (Jer 48:1, 23; Ez 25:9). Eusebius placed it 10 Roman miles west of Medeba. Two identif...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22175,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kirjathaim*","title_en":"Kirjathaim*","content_ro":"<h3>KIRJATHAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Kiriathaim (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:19; 1 Chr 6:76). <em>See<\/em> Kiriathaim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRJATHAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Kiriathaim (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:19; 1 Chr 6:76). <em>See<\/em> Kiriathaim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRJATHAIM* KJV spelling of Kiriathaim (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:19; 1 Chr 6:76). See Kiriathaim.","summary_en":"KIRJATHAIM* KJV spelling of Kiriathaim (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:19; 1 Chr 6:76). See Kiriathaim.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34241,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sebam","title_en":"Sebam","content_ro":"<h3>SEBAM<\/h3>\n<p>City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this area (Jos 13:19) but eventually lost it to the marauding Moabites. This city was known for its vineyards (Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32). Sebam is alternately called Sibmah in the Hebrew text (cf. Nm 32:38; Jos 13:19; Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SEBAM<\/h3>\n<p>City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this area (Jos 13:19) but eventually lost it to the marauding Moabites. This city was known for its vineyards (Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32). Sebam is alternately called Sibmah in the Hebrew text (cf. Nm 32:38; Jos 13:19; Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SEBAM City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this area (Jos 13:19) but eventually lost it to the marauding Moabites. This city was known for its vineyards (Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32). Sebam is alternately called Sibmah in the Hebrew text (cf. Nm 32:38; Jos 13:19; Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32).","summary_en":"SEBAM City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this area (Jos 13:19) but eventually lost it to the marauding Moabites. This city was known for its vineyards (Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32). Sebam is alternately called Sibmah in the Hebrew text (cf. Nm 32:38; Jos 13:19; Is 16:8-9; Jer 48:32).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35268,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sibmah","title_en":"Sibmah","content_ro":"<h3>SIBMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Sebam, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Numbers 32:38 and Joshua 13:19. <em>See<\/em> Sebam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIBMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Sebam, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Numbers 32:38 and Joshua 13:19. <em>See<\/em> Sebam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIBMAH Alternate rendering of Sebam, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Numbers 32:38 and Joshua 13:19. See Sebam.","summary_en":"SIBMAH Alternate rendering of Sebam, a city in Reuben’s territory, in Numbers 32:38 and Joshua 13:19. See Sebam.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38923,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zareth-Shahar*","title_en":"Zareth-Shahar*","content_ro":"<h3>ZARETH-SHAHAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Zereth-shahar, a Reubenite city, in Joshua 13:19. <em>See<\/em> Zereth-shahar.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZARETH-SHAHAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Zereth-shahar, a Reubenite city, in Joshua 13:19. <em>See<\/em> Zereth-shahar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZARETH-SHAHAR* KJV spelling of Zereth-shahar, a Reubenite city, in Joshua 13:19. See Zereth-shahar.","summary_en":"ZARETH-SHAHAR* KJV spelling of Zereth-shahar, a Reubenite city, in Joshua 13:19. See Zereth-shahar.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39264,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zereth-Shahar","title_en":"Zereth-Shahar","content_ro":"<h3>ZERETH-SHAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities inherited by Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:19), described as being on “the hill of the valley.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZERETH-SHAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities inherited by Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:19), described as being on “the hill of the valley.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZERETH-SHAHAR One of the cities inherited by Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:19), described as being on “the hill of the valley.”","summary_en":"ZERETH-SHAHAR One of the cities inherited by Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:19), described as being on “the hill of the valley.”","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":2928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashdoth-Pisgah*","title_en":"Ashdoth-Pisgah*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHDOTH-PISGAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of “slopes of Pisgah” (Dt 3:17; Jos 12:3; 13:20), referring to the slopes of Mt Pisgah. <em>See<\/em> Pisgah, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHDOTH-PISGAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of “slopes of Pisgah” (Dt 3:17; Jos 12:3; 13:20), referring to the slopes of Mt Pisgah. <em>See<\/em> Pisgah, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHDOTH-PISGAH* KJV form of “slopes of Pisgah” (Dt 3:17; Jos 12:3; 13:20), referring to the slopes of Mt Pisgah. See Pisgah, Mount.","summary_en":"ASHDOTH-PISGAH* KJV form of “slopes of Pisgah” (Dt 3:17; Jos 12:3; 13:20), referring to the slopes of Mt Pisgah. See Pisgah, Mount.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Jeshimoth","title_en":"Beth-Jeshimoth","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-JESHIMOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:20), later described as a Moabite town (Ez 25:9). Prior to Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land, they made camp along the Jordan from Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim (Nm 33:49). The city is usually identified with Tell el-Azeimeh.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-JESHIMOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:20), later described as a Moabite town (Ez 25:9). Prior to Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land, they made camp along the Jordan from Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim (Nm 33:49). The city is usually identified with Tell el-Azeimeh.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-JESHIMOTH City assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:20), later described as a Moabite town (Ez 25:9). Prior to Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land, they made camp along the Jordan from Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim (Nm 33:49). The city is usually identified with Tell el-Azeimeh. See also Wilderness Wanderings.","summary_en":"BETH-JESHIMOTH City assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Jos 13:20), later described as a Moabite town (Ez 25:9). Prior to Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land, they made camp along the Jordan from Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim (Nm 33:49). The city is usually identified with Tell el-Azeimeh. See also Wilderness Wanderings.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4534,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Peor","title_en":"Beth-Peor","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-PEOR<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite city given to Reuben’s tribe in the partitioning of the Promised Land (Jos 13:20). Prior to the Israelites’ entrance into the land of Canaan, they made camp in a valley opposite Beth-peor. Here the people assembled to hear Moses’ final message after he had viewed the land from the top of Mt Pisgah (Dt 3:29; 4:46). It was here that Moses was buried, having been forbidden to enter the territory promised the descendants of Abraham (Dt 34:6). Baal-peor (or Baal of Peor) was the name of a local deity worshiped in this region (Nm 25:3-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-PEOR<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite city given to Reuben’s tribe in the partitioning of the Promised Land (Jos 13:20). Prior to the Israelites’ entrance into the land of Canaan, they made camp in a valley opposite Beth-peor. Here the people assembled to hear Moses’ final message after he had viewed the land from the top of Mt Pisgah (Dt 3:29; 4:46). It was here that Moses was buried, having been forbidden to enter the territory promised the descendants of Abraham (Dt 34:6). Baal-peor (or Baal of Peor) was the name of a local deity worshiped in this region (Nm 25:3-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-PEOR Moabite city given to Reuben’s tribe in the partitioning of the Promised Land (Jos 13:20). Prior to the Israelites’ entrance into the land of Canaan, they made camp in a valley opposite Beth-peor. Here the people assembled to hear Moses’ final message after he had viewed the land from the top of Mt Pisgah (Dt 3:29; 4:46). It was here that Moses was buried, having been forbidden to enter the territory promised the descendants of Abraham (Dt 34:6). Baal-peor (or Baal of Peor) was the ...","summary_en":"BETH-PEOR Moabite city given to Reuben’s tribe in the partitioning of the Promised Land (Jos 13:20). Prior to the Israelites’ entrance into the land of Canaan, they made camp in a valley opposite Beth-peor. Here the people assembled to hear Moses’ final message after he had viewed the land from the top of Mt Pisgah (Dt 3:29; 4:46). It was here that Moses was buried, having been forbidden to enter the territory promised the descendants of Abraham (Dt 34:6). Baal-peor (or Baal of Peor) was the ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30453,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mount Pisgah","title_en":"Mount Pisgah","content_ro":"<h3>PISGAH, M<span>ount<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Mountain located at the northeast end of the Dead Sea near the ancient city of Jericho. Balak took Balaam to the top of Pisgah (Nm 23:14), and Moses was told to go to its summit to view the Promised Land (Dt 3:27). Later, Moses returned to the top of Pisgah to die (34:1). Pisgah’s slopes border the Dead Sea, or Sea of the Arabah (Dt 3:17; 4:49; Jos 12:3; 13:20). The <span>kjv<\/span> sometimes refers to these slopes as “Ashdoth-pisgah.” Many scholars identify Mt Pisgah with modern Ras es-Siyaghah, just north of Mt Nebo.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nebo, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PISGAH, M<span>ount<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Mountain located at the northeast end of the Dead Sea near the ancient city of Jericho. Balak took Balaam to the top of Pisgah (Nm 23:14), and Moses was told to go to its summit to view the Promised Land (Dt 3:27). Later, Moses returned to the top of Pisgah to die (34:1). Pisgah’s slopes border the Dead Sea, or Sea of the Arabah (Dt 3:17; 4:49; Jos 12:3; 13:20). The <span>kjv<\/span> sometimes refers to these slopes as “Ashdoth-pisgah.” Many scholars identify Mt Pisgah with modern Ras es-Siyaghah, just north of Mt Nebo.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nebo, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PISGAH, Mount Mountain located at the northeast end of the Dead Sea near the ancient city of Jericho. Balak took Balaam to the top of Pisgah (Nm 23:14), and Moses was told to go to its summit to view the Promised Land (Dt 3:27). Later, Moses returned to the top of Pisgah to die (34:1). Pisgah’s slopes border the Dead Sea, or Sea of the Arabah (Dt 3:17; 4:49; Jos 12:3; 13:20). The kjv sometimes refers to these slopes as “Ashdoth-pisgah.” Many scholars identify Mt Pisgah with modern Ras es-Siya...","summary_en":"PISGAH, Mount Mountain located at the northeast end of the Dead Sea near the ancient city of Jericho. Balak took Balaam to the top of Pisgah (Nm 23:14), and Moses was told to go to its summit to view the Promised Land (Dt 3:27). Later, Moses returned to the top of Pisgah to die (34:1). Pisgah’s slopes border the Dead Sea, or Sea of the Arabah (Dt 3:17; 4:49; Jos 12:3; 13:20). The kjv sometimes refers to these slopes as “Ashdoth-pisgah.” Many scholars identify Mt Pisgah with modern Ras es-Siya...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":11326,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Evi","title_en":"Evi","content_ro":"<h3>EVI<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Midianite kings killed in a battle against Israel under the leadership of Moses (Nm 31:8). Apparently, God directed Moses to go to battle against Midian because the Midianites had led the Israelites into pagan religious practices. In Joshua 13:21, Evi is called a prince of Sihon, the Midianite king.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EVI<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Midianite kings killed in a battle against Israel under the leadership of Moses (Nm 31:8). Apparently, God directed Moses to go to battle against Midian because the Midianites had led the Israelites into pagan religious practices. In Joshua 13:21, Evi is called a prince of Sihon, the Midianite king.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EVI One of five Midianite kings killed in a battle against Israel under the leadership of Moses (Nm 31:8). Apparently, God directed Moses to go to battle against Midian because the Midianites had led the Israelites into pagan religious practices. In Joshua 13:21, Evi is called a prince of Sihon, the Midianite king.","summary_en":"EVI One of five Midianite kings killed in a battle against Israel under the leadership of Moses (Nm 31:8). Apparently, God directed Moses to go to battle against Midian because the Midianites had led the Israelites into pagan religious practices. In Joshua 13:21, Evi is called a prince of Sihon, the Midianite king.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17012,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hur","title_en":"Hur","content_ro":"<h3>HUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Aaron’s assistant in supporting Moses’ hands until the Amalekites were defeated at Rephidim (Ex 17:8-13). He is mentioned again as assisting Aaron in overseeing Israel while Moses was on Mt Sinai (24:14). According to Josephus, Hur was the husband of Miriam, the sister of Moses (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 3.2.4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Fourth of the five kings of Midian who was killed with Balaam by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 31:8). He is also referred to as one of the “princes of Midian” and “Sihon” (Jos 13:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of one of the 12 officers whom Solomon appointed to provide food for the king’s household (1 Kgs 4:8, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>nlt<\/span> “Ben-hur”).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Caleb and Ephrath and the grandfather of Bezalel (1 Chr 2:19-20; cf. Ex 31:2; 38:22). Although some interpreters regard the Hur discussed in #1 as the grandfather of Bezalel, others think that the Hur who assisted Moses and the Hur who was Bezalel’s grandfather were different men.<\/li>\n<li>5. Father (or perhaps family name) of Rephaiah, a postexilic leader who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:9).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Aaron’s assistant in supporting Moses’ hands until the Amalekites were defeated at Rephidim (Ex 17:8-13). He is mentioned again as assisting Aaron in overseeing Israel while Moses was on Mt Sinai (24:14). According to Josephus, Hur was the husband of Miriam, the sister of Moses (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 3.2.4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Fourth of the five kings of Midian who was killed with Balaam by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 31:8). He is also referred to as one of the “princes of Midian” and “Sihon” (Jos 13:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of one of the 12 officers whom Solomon appointed to provide food for the king’s household (1 Kgs 4:8, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>nlt<\/span> “Ben-hur”).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Caleb and Ephrath and the grandfather of Bezalel (1 Chr 2:19-20; cf. Ex 31:2; 38:22). Although some interpreters regard the Hur discussed in #1 as the grandfather of Bezalel, others think that the Hur who assisted Moses and the Hur who was Bezalel’s grandfather were different men.<\/li>\n<li>5. Father (or perhaps family name) of Rephaiah, a postexilic leader who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:9).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HUR 1. Aaron’s assistant in supporting Moses’ hands until the Amalekites were defeated at Rephidim (Ex 17:8-13). He is mentioned again as assisting Aaron in overseeing Israel while Moses was on Mt Sinai (24:14). According to Josephus, Hur was the husband of Miriam, the sister of Moses (Antiquities 3.2.4). 2. Fourth of the five kings of Midian who was killed with Balaam by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 31:8). He is also referred to as one of the “princes of Midian” and “Sihon” (Jos 13:21). 3....","summary_en":"HUR 1. Aaron’s assistant in supporting Moses’ hands until the Amalekites were defeated at Rephidim (Ex 17:8-13). He is mentioned again as assisting Aaron in overseeing Israel while Moses was on Mt Sinai (24:14). According to Josephus, Hur was the husband of Miriam, the sister of Moses (Antiquities 3.2.4). 2. Fourth of the five kings of Midian who was killed with Balaam by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 31:8). He is also referred to as one of the “princes of Midian” and “Sihon” (Jos 13:21). 3....","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25691,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27808,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32505,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reba","title_en":"Reba","content_ro":"<h3>REBA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the five Midianite kings killed by Moses at the Lord’s command for seducing the Israelite settlers to idol worship (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REBA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the five Midianite kings killed by Moses at the Lord’s command for seducing the Israelite settlers to idol worship (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"REBA One of the five Midianite kings killed by Moses at the Lord’s command for seducing the Israelite settlers to idol worship (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:21).","summary_en":"REBA One of the five Midianite kings killed by Moses at the Lord’s command for seducing the Israelite settlers to idol worship (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:21).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rekem (Person)","title_en":"Rekem (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>REKEM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Prince or king of Midian killed with his four accomplices in a battle waged by Moses at the Lord’s command (Nm 31:8, Jos 13:21). Israelites living in the vicinity of Rekem’s dominion had been seduced to the worship of Baal-peor.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Hebron, a descendant of Caleb, and Shammai’s father (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REKEM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Prince or king of Midian killed with his four accomplices in a battle waged by Moses at the Lord’s command (Nm 31:8, Jos 13:21). Israelites living in the vicinity of Rekem’s dominion had been seduced to the worship of Baal-peor.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Hebron, a descendant of Caleb, and Shammai’s father (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REKEM (Person) 1. Prince or king of Midian killed with his four accomplices in a battle waged by Moses at the Lord’s command (Nm 31:8, Jos 13:21). Israelites living in the vicinity of Rekem’s dominion had been seduced to the worship of Baal-peor. 2. Son of Hebron, a descendant of Caleb, and Shammai’s father (1 Chr 2:43-44).","summary_en":"REKEM (Person) 1. Prince or king of Midian killed with his four accomplices in a battle waged by Moses at the Lord’s command (Nm 31:8, Jos 13:21). Israelites living in the vicinity of Rekem’s dominion had been seduced to the worship of Baal-peor. 2. Son of Hebron, a descendant of Caleb, and Shammai’s father (1 Chr 2:43-44).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39541,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zur","title_en":"Zur","content_ro":"<h3>ZUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midianite prince who was the father of Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was killed by Phinehas for consorting with Zimri after the incident at Baal-peor (Nm 25:15). He was one of the five “kings” of Midian who (with Balaam) were later killed by the Israelites (31:8). Apparently, he was a vassal of the Amorite king Sihon, since he is listed as one of his “princes” (Jos 13:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Jeiel, the founder of Gibeon (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36). He was a Benjaminite and a distant relative of Saul.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midianite prince who was the father of Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was killed by Phinehas for consorting with Zimri after the incident at Baal-peor (Nm 25:15). He was one of the five “kings” of Midian who (with Balaam) were later killed by the Israelites (31:8). Apparently, he was a vassal of the Amorite king Sihon, since he is listed as one of his “princes” (Jos 13:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Jeiel, the founder of Gibeon (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36). He was a Benjaminite and a distant relative of Saul.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZUR 1. Midianite prince who was the father of Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was killed by Phinehas for consorting with Zimri after the incident at Baal-peor (Nm 25:15). He was one of the five “kings” of Midian who (with Balaam) were later killed by the Israelites (31:8). Apparently, he was a vassal of the Amorite king Sihon, since he is listed as one of his “princes” (Jos 13:21). 2. Son of Jeiel, the founder of Gibeon (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36). He was a Benjaminite and a distant relative of Saul.","summary_en":"ZUR 1. Midianite prince who was the father of Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was killed by Phinehas for consorting with Zimri after the incident at Baal-peor (Nm 25:15). He was one of the five “kings” of Midian who (with Balaam) were later killed by the Israelites (31:8). Apparently, he was a vassal of the Amorite king Sihon, since he is listed as one of his “princes” (Jos 13:21). 2. Son of Jeiel, the founder of Gibeon (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36). He was a Benjaminite and a distant relative of Saul.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100760,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128386,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183638,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198083,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238890,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253399,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:21","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:21<\/strong> The <em>leaders of Midian<\/em> were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","summary_en":"13:21 The leaders of Midian were apparently kings (Num 31:8) or sheiks of small city-states south of Sihon’s kingdom. The nomadic Midianites depended mostly on sheep and goats for their livelihood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":96284,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123910,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134226,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":179162,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":189113,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":234414,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":244430,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte interesat de bani (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>În cele din urmă, Dumnezeu i-a permis lui Balaam să meargă, dar numai dacă Balaam accepta să spună ceea ce îi va spune Dumnezeu și numai pentru a zădărnici planurile lui Balak (Deut 23:4-5). Pe drum, măgărița lui Balaam s-a oprit și a refuzat să înainteze, fiindcă îngerul Domnului bloca drumul. Măgărița putea să vadă îngerul, dar Balaam era orb și nechibzuit. Totuși, Balaam a fost suficient de înțelept încât să nu-i blesteme pe israeliți când Dumnezeu i-a spus să-i binecuvânteze, iar spre marea frustrare a lui Balak, aceasta a fost tot ce a putut face Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>Recent, a fost descoperită o inscripție care îl menționează pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, un ghicitor care avea viziuni noaptea (compară cu Num 22:9-12, 20). Inscripția a fost scrisă pe un perete tencuit la Deir ‘Alla, la opt mile est de râul Iordan, nu departe spre nord de locul unde erau așezați evreii în vremea episodului cu Balaam. Acest text nebiblic, datat între 800–750 <span>î.Hr.<\/span>, îl identifică pe Balaam ca „văzător al zeilor” și relatează că zeii, ale căror nume în inscripție sunt asemănătoare cu <em>Shaddai<\/em> („Cel Atotputernic”; compară cu Num 24:4, 16), i-au transmis un mesaj lui Balaam și au anunțat judecata asupra lumii (compară cu Num 24:15-25). Inscripția oferă o dovadă extrabiblică rară despre un personaj biblic.<\/p>\n<p>Deși caracterul și motivele lui Balaam par oarecum amestecate în Numeri 22–24, capitolul 25 descrie cum bărbații lui Israel au păcătuit culcându-se cu femei moabite și închinându-se zeilor lor, fapt care a aprins mânia lui Dumnezeu împotriva poporului Său. Deși Balaam nu este menționat aici, Numeri 31:16 îl numește inițiatorul acestui complot. După încheierea viziunilor sale, se pare că Balaam a rămas în Moab și a continuat să caute o cale prin care să-i facă rău lui Israel și să obțină plata. Israeliții l-au omorât la scurt timp după aceea (Num 31:8). Balaam a devenit cunoscut ca un vrăjitor cu motive rele (vezi Deut 23:4-5; Ios 13:22), un învățător fals interesat numai de câștig (vezi Neem 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Iuda 1:11) și cineva care l-a dus pe Israel în idolatrie și imoralitate (Num 31:16; vezi Apoc 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Ios 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Iuda 1:11; Apoc 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam era un ghicitor — o persoană care citea semne și prevestiri pentru a determina viitorul și îndeplinea ritualuri pentru a schimba evenimentele viitoare (vezi nota de studiu la Num 22:5-6; compară cu Ios 13:22). El era un ghicitor plătit, astfel că atunci când Balak, regele Moabului, a vrut să-l angajeze ca să blesteme Israelul, Balaam era nerăbdător să înceapă. Chiar și când Dumnezeu i-a spus să nu meargă, el a sperat că Dumnezeu Își va schimba hotărârea, deoarece era foarte inte...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3522,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>BALAAM<\/h3>\n<p>Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of their own God, Yahweh, he could easily defeat them in battle and drive them away from his borders. Balak sent messengers to Pethor, where Balaam lived. The town is believed to be located near Haran along the Habur River, a tributary of the Euphrates. Balak offered Balaam an impressive sum to come down and curse the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, however, was warned by the Lord that he should not go to Moab. The king of Moab would not accept Balaam’s refusal and sent his royal messengers back with offers of greater wealth and honor. Balaam revealed an inner lust for wealth and position by returning to the Lord to ask whether he should go. His words to the messengers, however, were very pious: “Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of the <span>Lord<\/span> my God, to do less or more” (Nm 22:18, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although Balaam would do only what the Lord allowed, he became a prime example of someone who does the right thing for the wrong reason.<\/p>\n<p>Balak had sent along with his messengers “the fees for divination” (Nm 22:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), which shows that he considered Balaam a diviner of the type pagan nations commonly used. The Israelites were forbidden by the Lord to consult diviners or practice divination (Dt 18:10-11). A true prophet would not have even considered the possibility that serving Balak might be right. God’s final permission to let Balaam go, with the stipulation that he say only what God told him, was the Lord’s way of frustrating Balak’s cause and showing God’s care for his chosen people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Although he gave his permission, God was angry that Balaam went (Nm 22:22). So the Lord placed an angel with a drawn sword in Balaam’s path. His donkey could see the angel but Balaam could not. Not knowing why the donkey balked, Balaam beat her, and she was then miraculously given a voice to complain against his cruelty (vv 28-30).<\/p>\n<p>On the surface the story in Numbers 22 presents Balaam as a man who simply did what the Lord allowed him to do. But Deuteronomy 23:5 states that the Lord would not listen to Balaam and turned his intended curse into a blessing. When the Lord opened Balaam’s eyes, he saw the angel and fell flat on his face (Nm 22:31). Then he acknowledged his sin and proceeded to say only what the Lord put in his mouth. Balaam’s poems in Numbers 23 and 24 are in an archaic form of Hebrew that witnesses to their authenticity. They sometimes describe God’s past blessing on his people, and at other points predict his future blessing of Israel in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>Only blessings on Israel and never a single word of a curse were spoken by Balaam. The infuriated Moabite king took Balaam from one vantage point to another where they could look out over the Jordan Valley and see the Israelite encampment. When Balaam still did not curse them, Balak slapped his hands together in anger and packed the prophet off without any reward at all. But that was by no means the end of Balak’s attempt to weaken Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 25 tells how the Moabite king almost succeeded in turning the Israelites against the Lord. It describes a scene at Peor where Israelite men engaged in debauchery with Moabite women. That may have meant participation in the common heathen practice of temple prostitution, for according to Numbers 31:14-16, that had been Balaam’s advice to Balak and the Moabites on how to weaken Israel. Later Balaam was killed by the Israelites in their campaign against Midian (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Balak.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BALAAM<\/h3>\n<p>Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of their own God, Yahweh, he could easily defeat them in battle and drive them away from his borders. Balak sent messengers to Pethor, where Balaam lived. The town is believed to be located near Haran along the Habur River, a tributary of the Euphrates. Balak offered Balaam an impressive sum to come down and curse the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, however, was warned by the Lord that he should not go to Moab. The king of Moab would not accept Balaam’s refusal and sent his royal messengers back with offers of greater wealth and honor. Balaam revealed an inner lust for wealth and position by returning to the Lord to ask whether he should go. His words to the messengers, however, were very pious: “Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of the <span>Lord<\/span> my God, to do less or more” (Nm 22:18, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although Balaam would do only what the Lord allowed, he became a prime example of someone who does the right thing for the wrong reason.<\/p>\n<p>Balak had sent along with his messengers “the fees for divination” (Nm 22:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), which shows that he considered Balaam a diviner of the type pagan nations commonly used. The Israelites were forbidden by the Lord to consult diviners or practice divination (Dt 18:10-11). A true prophet would not have even considered the possibility that serving Balak might be right. God’s final permission to let Balaam go, with the stipulation that he say only what God told him, was the Lord’s way of frustrating Balak’s cause and showing God’s care for his chosen people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Although he gave his permission, God was angry that Balaam went (Nm 22:22). So the Lord placed an angel with a drawn sword in Balaam’s path. His donkey could see the angel but Balaam could not. Not knowing why the donkey balked, Balaam beat her, and she was then miraculously given a voice to complain against his cruelty (vv 28-30).<\/p>\n<p>On the surface the story in Numbers 22 presents Balaam as a man who simply did what the Lord allowed him to do. But Deuteronomy 23:5 states that the Lord would not listen to Balaam and turned his intended curse into a blessing. When the Lord opened Balaam’s eyes, he saw the angel and fell flat on his face (Nm 22:31). Then he acknowledged his sin and proceeded to say only what the Lord put in his mouth. Balaam’s poems in Numbers 23 and 24 are in an archaic form of Hebrew that witnesses to their authenticity. They sometimes describe God’s past blessing on his people, and at other points predict his future blessing of Israel in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>Only blessings on Israel and never a single word of a curse were spoken by Balaam. The infuriated Moabite king took Balaam from one vantage point to another where they could look out over the Jordan Valley and see the Israelite encampment. When Balaam still did not curse them, Balak slapped his hands together in anger and packed the prophet off without any reward at all. But that was by no means the end of Balak’s attempt to weaken Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 25 tells how the Moabite king almost succeeded in turning the Israelites against the Lord. It describes a scene at Peor where Israelite men engaged in debauchery with Moabite women. That may have meant participation in the common heathen practice of temple prostitution, for according to Numbers 31:14-16, that had been Balaam’s advice to Balak and the Moabites on how to weaken Israel. Later Balaam was killed by the Israelites in their campaign against Midian (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Balak.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BALAAM Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of...","summary_en":"BALAAM Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35916,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Soothsayer*","title_en":"Soothsayer*","content_ro":"<h3>SOOTHSAYER*<\/h3>\n<p>One who foretells events; a pagan practice, soothsaying was forbidden in Israel (Dt 18:10, 14). In Scripture, soothsaying was practiced by Balaam, Beor’s son (Jos 13:22) and King Manasseh of Judah (2 Kgs 21:6; 2 Chr 33:6); Jacob’s descendants were likened to the soothsayers of Philistia (Is 2:6); they were listed among the false prophets of Judah (Jer 27:9). During NT times, soothsaying was the source of a lucrative trade in Philippi (Acts 16:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Magic; Sorcery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOOTHSAYER*<\/h3>\n<p>One who foretells events; a pagan practice, soothsaying was forbidden in Israel (Dt 18:10, 14). In Scripture, soothsaying was practiced by Balaam, Beor’s son (Jos 13:22) and King Manasseh of Judah (2 Kgs 21:6; 2 Chr 33:6); Jacob’s descendants were likened to the soothsayers of Philistia (Is 2:6); they were listed among the false prophets of Judah (Jer 27:9). During NT times, soothsaying was the source of a lucrative trade in Philippi (Acts 16:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Magic; Sorcery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOOTHSAYER* One who foretells events; a pagan practice, soothsaying was forbidden in Israel (Dt 18:10, 14). In Scripture, soothsaying was practiced by Balaam, Beor’s son (Jos 13:22) and King Manasseh of Judah (2 Kgs 21:6; 2 Chr 33:6); Jacob’s descendants were likened to the soothsayers of Philistia (Is 2:6); they were listed among the false prophets of Judah (Jer 27:9). During NT times, soothsaying was the source of a lucrative trade in Philippi (Acts 16:16). See also Magic; Sorcery.","summary_en":"SOOTHSAYER* One who foretells events; a pagan practice, soothsaying was forbidden in Israel (Dt 18:10, 14). In Scripture, soothsaying was practiced by Balaam, Beor’s son (Jos 13:22) and King Manasseh of Judah (2 Kgs 21:6; 2 Chr 33:6); Jacob’s descendants were likened to the soothsayers of Philistia (Is 2:6); they were listed among the false prophets of Judah (Jer 27:9). During NT times, soothsaying was the source of a lucrative trade in Philippi (Acts 16:16). See also Magic; Sorcery.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100761,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128387,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183639,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238891,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253401,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Balaam son of Beor<\/em> had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","summary_en":"13:22 Balaam son of Beor had initiated a successful plan to seduce Israel into sexually expressed idolatry (Num 31:16), even though God had forbidden Balaam to curse Israel (Num 22–25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":13051,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Gad","title_en":"Tribe of Gad","content_ro":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","summary_en":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20809,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38909,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaphon","title_en":"Zaphon","content_ro":"<h3>ZAPHON<\/h3>\n<p>Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century <span>BC<\/span>) refer to a town known as <em>Dapuna,<\/em> while an Amarna text spells the name <em>Sapuna.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZAPHON<\/h3>\n<p>Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century <span>BC<\/span>) refer to a town known as <em>Dapuna,<\/em> while an Amarna text spells the name <em>Sapuna.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"ZAPHON Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century BC) refer to a town known as Dapuna, while an Amarna text spells the name Sapuna.","summary_en":"ZAPHON Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century BC) refer to a town known as Dapuna, while an Amarna text spells the name Sapuna.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100762,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128388,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183640,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238892,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253403,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:24-28<\/strong> <em>Gad<\/em> was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","summary_en":"13:24-28 Gad was Jacob’s seventh son, born to Zilpah, Leah’s servant. Just as Gad’s position in his family was peripheral, the tribe of Gad was peripheral to Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":2770,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aroer","title_en":"Aroer","content_ro":"<h3>AROER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34).<\/li>\n<p>Aroer was the hub city for a number of villages (Jgs 11:26) and was the city from which the census began under King David (2 Sm 24:5). The Moabites gained control of it during the later monarchy and kept it until the time of Jeremiah (Jer 48:19). King Hazael of Damascus captured Aroer, assuring Syrian control of Transjordan (2 Kgs 10:33).<\/p>\n<p>Aroer has been identified with a mound beside the village ’Ara’ir, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Dibon on the east side of the ancient north-south Transjordan highway.<\/p>\n<li>2. City assigned to Gad’s tribe (Jos 13:25), mentioned as a point of reference in Jephthah’s victory over the Ammonites (Jgs 11:33). This Aroer has been tentatively placed in the area northwest of Amman and east of Rabbah.<\/li>\n<li>3. City in the Negev Desert area of Judah. Aroer was one of the villages receiving spoil taken in David’s victory over the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:28). Two of David’s “mighty men” were sons of Hotham the Aroerite (1 Chr 11:44). This Aroer has been identified with Khirbet ’Ar’areh, located about 12 miles (19 kilometers) southeast of Beersheba.<\/li>\n<li>4. City near Damascus (Is 17:2). The Hebrew text reads “the cities of Aroer,” but the Septuagint (ancient Greek OT) has “her cities for ever” (a reading adopted by the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AROER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34).<\/li>\n<p>Aroer was the hub city for a number of villages (Jgs 11:26) and was the city from which the census began under King David (2 Sm 24:5). The Moabites gained control of it during the later monarchy and kept it until the time of Jeremiah (Jer 48:19). King Hazael of Damascus captured Aroer, assuring Syrian control of Transjordan (2 Kgs 10:33).<\/p>\n<p>Aroer has been identified with a mound beside the village ’Ara’ir, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Dibon on the east side of the ancient north-south Transjordan highway.<\/p>\n<li>2. City assigned to Gad’s tribe (Jos 13:25), mentioned as a point of reference in Jephthah’s victory over the Ammonites (Jgs 11:33). This Aroer has been tentatively placed in the area northwest of Amman and east of Rabbah.<\/li>\n<li>3. City in the Negev Desert area of Judah. Aroer was one of the villages receiving spoil taken in David’s victory over the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:28). Two of David’s “mighty men” were sons of Hotham the Aroerite (1 Chr 11:44). This Aroer has been identified with Khirbet ’Ar’areh, located about 12 miles (19 kilometers) southeast of Beersheba.<\/li>\n<li>4. City near Damascus (Is 17:2). The Hebrew text reads “the cities of Aroer,” but the Septuagint (ancient Greek OT) has “her cities for ever” (a reading adopted by the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AROER 1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34). Aroe...","summary_en":"AROER 1. Transjordanian city existing from Moses’ time until the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC). It was among the cities that Israel conquered from Sihon the Amorite and Og the Bashanite in an area assigned to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to half of Manasseh’s tribe. Aroer was on the southern border of that territory (Jos 13:9), on the northern rim of the large Arnon Canyon (Dt 2:36; 3:12; 4:48; Jos 13:9). Evidently the city was rebuilt after Israel destroyed it (cf. Jos 12:2; Nm 32:34). Aroe...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18581,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jazer","title_en":"Jazer","content_ro":"<h3>JAZER<\/h3>\n<p>Town east of the Jordan River in southern Gilead, taken with its surrounding villages by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 21:32). The tribes of Gad and Reuben asked for the lands of Jazer and Gilead. They had large flocks and herds and saw that the east side of the Jordan was fertile and best suited for livestock grazing (32:1-5). They promised to build protection for their women and children, then go with the other tribes to fight in Canaan (vv 6-27). Jazer became a border point marking the inheritance of Gad (Jos 13:25) and was given to the Levites (Jos 21:39; 1 Chr 6:81). When Joab was sent to number the people, he reached the city of Jazer in Gad (2 Sm 24:5). This town was later recognized during a search for “capable men” under King David (1 Chr 26:31). Just over 200 years later, however, it was occupied by Moab (Is 16:6-9; Jer 48:32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAZER<\/h3>\n<p>Town east of the Jordan River in southern Gilead, taken with its surrounding villages by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 21:32). The tribes of Gad and Reuben asked for the lands of Jazer and Gilead. They had large flocks and herds and saw that the east side of the Jordan was fertile and best suited for livestock grazing (32:1-5). They promised to build protection for their women and children, then go with the other tribes to fight in Canaan (vv 6-27). Jazer became a border point marking the inheritance of Gad (Jos 13:25) and was given to the Levites (Jos 21:39; 1 Chr 6:81). When Joab was sent to number the people, he reached the city of Jazer in Gad (2 Sm 24:5). This town was later recognized during a search for “capable men” under King David (1 Chr 26:31). Just over 200 years later, however, it was occupied by Moab (Is 16:6-9; Jer 48:32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAZER Town east of the Jordan River in southern Gilead, taken with its surrounding villages by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 21:32). The tribes of Gad and Reuben asked for the lands of Jazer and Gilead. They had large flocks and herds and saw that the east side of the Jordan was fertile and best suited for livestock grazing (32:1-5). They promised to build protection for their women and children, then go with the other tribes to fight in Canaan (vv 6-27). Jazer became a border point marking ...","summary_en":"JAZER Town east of the Jordan River in southern Gilead, taken with its surrounding villages by the Israelites under Moses (Nm 21:32). The tribes of Gad and Reuben asked for the lands of Jazer and Gilead. They had large flocks and herds and saw that the east side of the Jordan was fertile and best suited for livestock grazing (32:1-5). They promised to build protection for their women and children, then go with the other tribes to fight in Canaan (vv 6-27). Jazer became a border point marking ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32260,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rabbah of the Ammonites","title_en":"Rabbah of the Ammonites","content_ro":"<h3>RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and renamed it Philadelphia. After the Romans took Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, the city became part of the Decapolis, and after <span>AD<\/span> 106 was part of the Roman province of Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah first appears in Scripture as the place where the great iron bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was kept (Dt 3:11; <span>kjv<\/span> “Rabbath of the children of Ammon”). When Transjordan was divided among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, the territory of Gad extended to the vicinity of Rabbah but did not include it (Jos 13:25).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah figured most significantly in Scripture during David’s reign. At that time Joab laid siege to the city, and during the battle, Uriah the Hittite lost his life by the specific command of the king (2 Sm 11:1; 12:26-29). The city was built in two parts—the upper city and the lower city, called the “city of waters” (12:27). Joab took the lower city and perhaps gained control of the water supply, and then waited for David to come and complete the conquest (vv 27-28). After a thorough sack of Rabbah, David did not station troops in the city but left it under the control of the Ammonites, who became vassals of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>About 250 years later, Amos pronounced judgment on the then-prosperous city (Am 1:13-14). When Nebuchadnezzar stopped at Rabbah during his invasion of Transjordan, it was a significant place (Ez 21:20). It was at Rabbah that Baalis, king of the Ammonites, later plotted the attack that resulted in the death of Gedaliah (Jer 40:14ff.), the Babylonian governor of Judea, and the exile of Jeremiah into Egypt. Jeremiah’s prophecy against Rabbah is recorded in Jeremiah 49:2-3.<\/p>\n<p>Since modern Amman covers ancient Rabbah, no excavation of the ancient city is possible. The Roman theater stands in the center of the city, with seating for 6,000 people. Dilapidated remains of an odeum, or music hall, and a fountain, also of the Roman period, stand nearby. Everything visible on the ancient citadel is Roman, Byzantine, or Arab, except at the northeast corner, where part of the Iron Age town wall is still exposed. The Roman temple at the southwest corner of the citadel was dedicated to Hercules.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Decapolis; Philadelphia #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and renamed it Philadelphia. After the Romans took Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, the city became part of the Decapolis, and after <span>AD<\/span> 106 was part of the Roman province of Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah first appears in Scripture as the place where the great iron bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was kept (Dt 3:11; <span>kjv<\/span> “Rabbath of the children of Ammon”). When Transjordan was divided among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, the territory of Gad extended to the vicinity of Rabbah but did not include it (Jos 13:25).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah figured most significantly in Scripture during David’s reign. At that time Joab laid siege to the city, and during the battle, Uriah the Hittite lost his life by the specific command of the king (2 Sm 11:1; 12:26-29). The city was built in two parts—the upper city and the lower city, called the “city of waters” (12:27). Joab took the lower city and perhaps gained control of the water supply, and then waited for David to come and complete the conquest (vv 27-28). After a thorough sack of Rabbah, David did not station troops in the city but left it under the control of the Ammonites, who became vassals of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>About 250 years later, Amos pronounced judgment on the then-prosperous city (Am 1:13-14). When Nebuchadnezzar stopped at Rabbah during his invasion of Transjordan, it was a significant place (Ez 21:20). It was at Rabbah that Baalis, king of the Ammonites, later plotted the attack that resulted in the death of Gedaliah (Jer 40:14ff.), the Babylonian governor of Judea, and the exile of Jeremiah into Egypt. Jeremiah’s prophecy against Rabbah is recorded in Jeremiah 49:2-3.<\/p>\n<p>Since modern Amman covers ancient Rabbah, no excavation of the ancient city is possible. The Roman theater stands in the center of the city, with seating for 6,000 people. Dilapidated remains of an odeum, or music hall, and a fountain, also of the Roman period, stand nearby. Everything visible on the ancient citadel is Roman, Byzantine, or Arab, except at the northeast corner, where part of the Iron Age town wall is still exposed. The Roman temple at the southwest corner of the citadel was dedicated to Hercules.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Decapolis; Philadelphia #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century BC, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and...","summary_en":"RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century BC, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":4601,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Betonim","title_en":"Betonim","content_ro":"<h3>BETONIM<\/h3>\n<p>City in the territory assigned to Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:26). It has been identified with modern Khirbet Bat-neh, 16 miles (25.7 kilometers) northeast of Jericho.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETONIM<\/h3>\n<p>City in the territory assigned to Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:26). It has been identified with modern Khirbet Bat-neh, 16 miles (25.7 kilometers) northeast of Jericho.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETONIM City in the territory assigned to Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:26). It has been identified with modern Khirbet Bat-neh, 16 miles (25.7 kilometers) northeast of Jericho.","summary_en":"BETONIM City in the territory assigned to Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:26). It has been identified with modern Khirbet Bat-neh, 16 miles (25.7 kilometers) northeast of Jericho.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9111,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Debir (Place)","title_en":"Debir (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>DEBIR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city originally held by the Anakim before being conquered by the Israelites (Jos 11:21; 15:15). There are two accounts of the conquest of Debir (10:38-39; 15:13-17). One of these lists Joshua as the conqueror, and the other lists Othniel as the conqueror (by request of Caleb). It is possible that the Othniel account is simply a further elaboration of the Joshua account, or it is possible that Debir was retaken by the Canaanites and the Othniel-Caleb account tells of the subsequent recapture by the Israelites. The latter explanation, however, does not seem to accord well with the apparent finality of the Joshua account. Thus, it would seem that the former explanation is more probable.<\/li>\n<p>Debir, with its pasturelands, was finally given to the priestly descendants of the Aaronites (Jos 21:15; 1 Chr 6:58). This might seem fitting, since prior to its capture by the Israelites, Debir was known for its pagan temple. Debir was also known as Kiriath-sannah, meaning “city of the scribes” (Jos 15:49), and Kiriath-sepher, meaning “city of the books” (v 15). Its exact location is disputed among scholars, but most likely it was located near Khirbet Rabud in the southern Judean hill country.<\/p>\n<li>2. Gadite town east of the Jordan River near the Sea of Galilee (Jos 13:26). It is possibly the same site as Lo-debar (2 Sm 9:4-5; 17:27; Am 6:13), where Mephibosheth once lived before David summoned him.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town on the northern border of Judah some 10 miles (16 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem (Jos 15:7).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DEBIR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city originally held by the Anakim before being conquered by the Israelites (Jos 11:21; 15:15). There are two accounts of the conquest of Debir (10:38-39; 15:13-17). One of these lists Joshua as the conqueror, and the other lists Othniel as the conqueror (by request of Caleb). It is possible that the Othniel account is simply a further elaboration of the Joshua account, or it is possible that Debir was retaken by the Canaanites and the Othniel-Caleb account tells of the subsequent recapture by the Israelites. The latter explanation, however, does not seem to accord well with the apparent finality of the Joshua account. Thus, it would seem that the former explanation is more probable.<\/li>\n<p>Debir, with its pasturelands, was finally given to the priestly descendants of the Aaronites (Jos 21:15; 1 Chr 6:58). This might seem fitting, since prior to its capture by the Israelites, Debir was known for its pagan temple. Debir was also known as Kiriath-sannah, meaning “city of the scribes” (Jos 15:49), and Kiriath-sepher, meaning “city of the books” (v 15). Its exact location is disputed among scholars, but most likely it was located near Khirbet Rabud in the southern Judean hill country.<\/p>\n<li>2. Gadite town east of the Jordan River near the Sea of Galilee (Jos 13:26). It is possibly the same site as Lo-debar (2 Sm 9:4-5; 17:27; Am 6:13), where Mephibosheth once lived before David summoned him.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town on the northern border of Judah some 10 miles (16 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem (Jos 15:7).<\/li>","summary_ro":"DEBIR (Place) 1. Canaanite city originally held by the Anakim before being conquered by the Israelites (Jos 11:21; 15:15). There are two accounts of the conquest of Debir (10:38-39; 15:13-17). One of these lists Joshua as the conqueror, and the other lists Othniel as the conqueror (by request of Caleb). It is possible that the Othniel account is simply a further elaboration of the Joshua account, or it is possible that Debir was retaken by the Canaanites and the Othniel-Caleb account tells of...","summary_en":"DEBIR (Place) 1. Canaanite city originally held by the Anakim before being conquered by the Israelites (Jos 11:21; 15:15). There are two accounts of the conquest of Debir (10:38-39; 15:13-17). One of these lists Joshua as the conqueror, and the other lists Othniel as the conqueror (by request of Caleb). It is possible that the Othniel account is simply a further elaboration of the Joshua account, or it is possible that Debir was retaken by the Canaanites and the Othniel-Caleb account tells of...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16312,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heshbon","title_en":"Heshbon","content_ro":"<h3>HESHBON<\/h3>\n<p>Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of Gad. The Moabites soon contested Israel’s claim to the territory, and in the period of the judges it changed hands at least once (Jgs 3:12; 1 Sm 12:9-11). Israel controlled Heshbon until around 853 <span>BC<\/span>, when it was occupied by Mesha, king of Moab. Subsequently, it was mentioned in preexilic prophetic censures of the Moabites (cf. Is 15:4; 16:8-9; Jer 48:2, 33-34). Jeremiah 49:3 seems to indicate that Heshbon was finally occupied by the neighboring Ammonites.<\/p>\n<p>It was an important Nabatean city in the Greek period, and it was conquered by the Jews in the campaigns of Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). In the Roman period it was incorporated into the province of Syria.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HESHBON<\/h3>\n<p>Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of Gad. The Moabites soon contested Israel’s claim to the territory, and in the period of the judges it changed hands at least once (Jgs 3:12; 1 Sm 12:9-11). Israel controlled Heshbon until around 853 <span>BC<\/span>, when it was occupied by Mesha, king of Moab. Subsequently, it was mentioned in preexilic prophetic censures of the Moabites (cf. Is 15:4; 16:8-9; Jer 48:2, 33-34). Jeremiah 49:3 seems to indicate that Heshbon was finally occupied by the neighboring Ammonites.<\/p>\n<p>It was an important Nabatean city in the Greek period, and it was conquered by the Jews in the campaigns of Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). In the Roman period it was incorporated into the province of Syria.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HESHBON Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of...","summary_en":"HESHBON Important Transjordanian city about 50 miles (80 kilometers) due east of Jerusalem. It had originally been Moabite but was conquered by Sihon, the Amorite king, and became the capital of his kingdom (Nm 21:25-30). The city was captured when Israel advanced into Canaan, and this portion of the Amorite territory was placed under Reubenite control (Nm 32:37; Jos 13:17). However, its position on the boundary between Reuben and Gad (Jos 13:26) resulted in its being occupied by the tribe of...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mahanaim","title_en":"Mahanaim","content_ro":"<h3>MAHANAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Settlement east of the Jordan in Gilead. Jacob met angels there and named the place “God’s camp.” He divided his household and possessions into two camps (Mahanaim means “two camps” in Hebrew) to keep from losing everything when he confronted Esau (Gn 32:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The city was located along the border between Manasseh and Gad’s tribes (Jos 13:26, 30) and was given to the Levites for an inheritance (Jos 21:38; 1 Chr 6:80). After Saul’s defeat at Mt Gilboa, Ishbosheth, his son, fled to Mahanaim to set up a capital in exile. He managed to control much of Israel from there (2 Sm 2:8, 12, 29) until he was assassinated by Recab and Baanah (4:5-7). David fled to this city when Absalom rebelled against him. Here he received supplies from Barzillai and some Gileadites (17:24-27). At this city gate he wept as he received the news of Absalom’s death. Solomon chose the city for the capital of his seventh district and established Ahinadab as its governor (1 Kgs 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references point to a location somewhere along the Jabbok River in central Gilead. Outside of this, the city could have been located virtually anywhere. It was earlier identified with Khirbet al-Makhna, two miles (3.2 kilometers) north of Aijalon. Most recent attention, however, has moved to the twin hills of Tulul al-Dhahab on the Jabbok. Aharoni suggests that the western mound of Tulul al-Dhahab is Mahanaim and the eastern mound is Penuel.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAHANAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Settlement east of the Jordan in Gilead. Jacob met angels there and named the place “God’s camp.” He divided his household and possessions into two camps (Mahanaim means “two camps” in Hebrew) to keep from losing everything when he confronted Esau (Gn 32:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The city was located along the border between Manasseh and Gad’s tribes (Jos 13:26, 30) and was given to the Levites for an inheritance (Jos 21:38; 1 Chr 6:80). After Saul’s defeat at Mt Gilboa, Ishbosheth, his son, fled to Mahanaim to set up a capital in exile. He managed to control much of Israel from there (2 Sm 2:8, 12, 29) until he was assassinated by Recab and Baanah (4:5-7). David fled to this city when Absalom rebelled against him. Here he received supplies from Barzillai and some Gileadites (17:24-27). At this city gate he wept as he received the news of Absalom’s death. Solomon chose the city for the capital of his seventh district and established Ahinadab as its governor (1 Kgs 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references point to a location somewhere along the Jabbok River in central Gilead. Outside of this, the city could have been located virtually anywhere. It was earlier identified with Khirbet al-Makhna, two miles (3.2 kilometers) north of Aijalon. Most recent attention, however, has moved to the twin hills of Tulul al-Dhahab on the Jabbok. Aharoni suggests that the western mound of Tulul al-Dhahab is Mahanaim and the eastern mound is Penuel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAHANAIM Settlement east of the Jordan in Gilead. Jacob met angels there and named the place “God’s camp.” He divided his household and possessions into two camps (Mahanaim means “two camps” in Hebrew) to keep from losing everything when he confronted Esau (Gn 32:1-11). The city was located along the border between Manasseh and Gad’s tribes (Jos 13:26, 30) and was given to the Levites for an inheritance (Jos 21:38; 1 Chr 6:80). After Saul’s defeat at Mt Gilboa, Ishbosheth, his son, fled to Ma...","summary_en":"MAHANAIM Settlement east of the Jordan in Gilead. Jacob met angels there and named the place “God’s camp.” He divided his household and possessions into two camps (Mahanaim means “two camps” in Hebrew) to keep from losing everything when he confronted Esau (Gn 32:1-11). The city was located along the border between Manasseh and Gad’s tribes (Jos 13:26, 30) and was given to the Levites for an inheritance (Jos 21:38; 1 Chr 6:80). After Saul’s defeat at Mt Gilboa, Ishbosheth, his son, fled to Ma...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mizpah","title_en":"Mizpah","content_ro":"<h3>MIZPAH<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “watchtower” in Hebrew (alternately spelled Mizpeh) used to designate a number of different locations mentioned in the OT and Apocrypha.<\/p>\n<p>1. Place in Gilead where Jacob and Laban made a covenant (Gn 31:49) and set up a heap of stones to mark the borders between their territories.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place referred to as “the land of Mizpah” (Jos 11:3) or the “valley of Mizpah” (Jos 11:8) near Mt Hermon and inhabited by the Hivites.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town in Judah near Lachish referred to in Joshua 15:38.<\/li>\n<li>4. Place in the tribal area of Benjamin (Jos 18:26). It was here that the Israelites gathered to war against the tribe of Benjamin (Jgs 20:1; 21:1) after the men of Gibeah had abused and killed the concubine of a visiting Levite. It was here that Samuel called all Israel together to pray for victory over the Philistines (1 Sm 7:5-8). Later, Samuel called for an assembly at Mizpah to publicly designate Saul as king and to instruct the people and king in the ways of the kingdom (10:17-25). In the time of Asa, Mizpah was a fortified town on the border between Israel and Judah (1 Kgs 15:22). After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span> to the Babylonians, Mizpah became the residence of Gedaliah the governor (2 Kgs 25:23-24; Jer 40:10), who was murdered there by Ishmael of the “royal seed” (Jer 41:3). Two days later Ishmael murdered a company of pilgrims who were going to Jerusalem to bring their offerings at the ruined temple, and he cast their bodies into a cistern that had been constructed centuries earlier by Asa.<\/li>\n<p>In the intertestamental period Mizpah continued to be an important religious center. Judas Maccabeus called the people together at Mizpah “because Israel formerly had a place of prayer in Mizpah” (1 Macc 3:46).<\/p>\n<li>5. Home of Jephthah, from which he led the Israelites in battle against the Ammonites, and to which he returned to carry out his vow (Jgs 10–11). This is possibly the same place as the Ramath-mizpeh of Joshua 13:26 and is thought by many to be identified with Khirbat Jal’ad just south of the Jabbok.<\/li>\n<li>6. Town in Moab to which David fled from Saul (1 Sm 22:3).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MIZPAH<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “watchtower” in Hebrew (alternately spelled Mizpeh) used to designate a number of different locations mentioned in the OT and Apocrypha.<\/p>\n<p>1. Place in Gilead where Jacob and Laban made a covenant (Gn 31:49) and set up a heap of stones to mark the borders between their territories.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place referred to as “the land of Mizpah” (Jos 11:3) or the “valley of Mizpah” (Jos 11:8) near Mt Hermon and inhabited by the Hivites.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town in Judah near Lachish referred to in Joshua 15:38.<\/li>\n<li>4. Place in the tribal area of Benjamin (Jos 18:26). It was here that the Israelites gathered to war against the tribe of Benjamin (Jgs 20:1; 21:1) after the men of Gibeah had abused and killed the concubine of a visiting Levite. It was here that Samuel called all Israel together to pray for victory over the Philistines (1 Sm 7:5-8). Later, Samuel called for an assembly at Mizpah to publicly designate Saul as king and to instruct the people and king in the ways of the kingdom (10:17-25). In the time of Asa, Mizpah was a fortified town on the border between Israel and Judah (1 Kgs 15:22). After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span> to the Babylonians, Mizpah became the residence of Gedaliah the governor (2 Kgs 25:23-24; Jer 40:10), who was murdered there by Ishmael of the “royal seed” (Jer 41:3). Two days later Ishmael murdered a company of pilgrims who were going to Jerusalem to bring their offerings at the ruined temple, and he cast their bodies into a cistern that had been constructed centuries earlier by Asa.<\/li>\n<p>In the intertestamental period Mizpah continued to be an important religious center. Judas Maccabeus called the people together at Mizpah “because Israel formerly had a place of prayer in Mizpah” (1 Macc 3:46).<\/p>\n<li>5. Home of Jephthah, from which he led the Israelites in battle against the Ammonites, and to which he returned to carry out his vow (Jgs 10–11). This is possibly the same place as the Ramath-mizpeh of Joshua 13:26 and is thought by many to be identified with Khirbat Jal’ad just south of the Jabbok.<\/li>\n<li>6. Town in Moab to which David fled from Saul (1 Sm 22:3).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MIZPAH Name meaning “watchtower” in Hebrew (alternately spelled Mizpeh) used to designate a number of different locations mentioned in the OT and Apocrypha. 1. Place in Gilead where Jacob and Laban made a covenant (Gn 31:49) and set up a heap of stones to mark the borders between their territories. 2. Place referred to as “the land of Mizpah” (Jos 11:3) or the “valley of Mizpah” (Jos 11:8) near Mt Hermon and inhabited by the Hivites. 3. Town in Judah near Lachish referred to in Joshua 15:38. ...","summary_en":"MIZPAH Name meaning “watchtower” in Hebrew (alternately spelled Mizpeh) used to designate a number of different locations mentioned in the OT and Apocrypha. 1. Place in Gilead where Jacob and Laban made a covenant (Gn 31:49) and set up a heap of stones to mark the borders between their territories. 2. Place referred to as “the land of Mizpah” (Jos 11:3) or the “valley of Mizpah” (Jos 11:8) near Mt Hermon and inhabited by the Hivites. 3. Town in Judah near Lachish referred to in Joshua 15:38. ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32388,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramath-Mizpeh","title_en":"Ramath-Mizpeh","content_ro":"<h3>RAMATH-MIZPEH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Mizpah, a town in Gad’s territory, in Joshua 13:26. <em>See<\/em> Mizpah #4.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAMATH-MIZPEH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Mizpah, a town in Gad’s territory, in Joshua 13:26. <em>See<\/em> Mizpah #4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAMATH-MIZPEH Alternate name for Mizpah, a town in Gad’s territory, in Joshua 13:26. See Mizpah #4.","summary_en":"RAMATH-MIZPEH Alternate name for Mizpah, a town in Gad’s territory, in Joshua 13:26. See Mizpah #4.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":4408,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Aram*","title_en":"Beth-Aram*","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-ARAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Beth-haram, a Gadite town, in Joshua 13:27. <em>See<\/em> Beth-haram, Beth-haran.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-ARAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Beth-haram, a Gadite town, in Joshua 13:27. <em>See<\/em> Beth-haram, Beth-haran.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-ARAM* KJV rendering of Beth-haram, a Gadite town, in Joshua 13:27. See Beth-haram, Beth-haran.","summary_en":"BETH-ARAM* KJV rendering of Beth-haram, a Gadite town, in Joshua 13:27. See Beth-haram, Beth-haran.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4472,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Haran Beth-Haram","title_en":"Beth-Haran Beth-Haram","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-HARAM, BETH-HARAN<\/h3>\n<p>Town given to Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan (Jos 13:27). Fortified and used to accommodate sheep herds (Nm 32:36), it is probably the same as Beth-aramphtha, a city mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-HARAM, BETH-HARAN<\/h3>\n<p>Town given to Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan (Jos 13:27). Fortified and used to accommodate sheep herds (Nm 32:36), it is probably the same as Beth-aramphtha, a city mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-HARAM, BETH-HARAN Town given to Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan (Jos 13:27). Fortified and used to accommodate sheep herds (Nm 32:36), it is probably the same as Beth-aramphtha, a city mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus.","summary_en":"BETH-HARAM, BETH-HARAN Town given to Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan (Jos 13:27). Fortified and used to accommodate sheep herds (Nm 32:36), it is probably the same as Beth-aramphtha, a city mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4527,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Nimrah","title_en":"Beth-Nimrah","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-NIMRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite city given to and rebuilt by Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 32:3; Jos 13:27). Beth-nimrah has been identified with modern Tell el-Bleibil, eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-NIMRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Moabite city given to and rebuilt by Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 32:3; Jos 13:27). Beth-nimrah has been identified with modern Tell el-Bleibil, eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-NIMRAH Moabite city given to and rebuilt by Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 32:3; Jos 13:27). Beth-nimrah has been identified with modern Tell el-Bleibil, eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River.","summary_en":"BETH-NIMRAH Moabite city given to and rebuilt by Gad’s tribe at the partitioning of Canaan, the Promised Land (Nm 32:3; Jos 13:27). Beth-nimrah has been identified with modern Tell el-Bleibil, eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22129,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kinnereth","title_en":"Kinnereth","content_ro":"<h3>KINNERETH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign of Baasha, king of the northern kingdom of Israel in the early ninth century <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 15:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Early name for the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11; Dt 3:17; Jos 11:2; 12:3; 13:27). It is hard to say whether the city (see #1 above) was named after the sea or vice versa. The name, however, means “lyres,” which could be an allusion to the Sea of Galilee’s shape, which roughly resembles that of a lyre. In NT times the pronunciation of the name was corrupted to Gennesaret (Lk 5:1). <em>See<\/em> Sea of Galilee.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KINNERETH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign of Baasha, king of the northern kingdom of Israel in the early ninth century <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 15:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Early name for the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11; Dt 3:17; Jos 11:2; 12:3; 13:27). It is hard to say whether the city (see #1 above) was named after the sea or vice versa. The name, however, means “lyres,” which could be an allusion to the Sea of Galilee’s shape, which roughly resembles that of a lyre. In NT times the pronunciation of the name was corrupted to Gennesaret (Lk 5:1). <em>See<\/em> Sea of Galilee.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KINNERETH 1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century BC. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 BC. 2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign ...","summary_en":"KINNERETH 1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century BC. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 BC. 2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign ...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28778,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Palestine*","title_en":"Palestine*","content_ro":"<h3>PALESTINE*<\/h3>\n<p>Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of Asia and Africa and as a continental link between Africa and Europe. Trade moved by well-defined routes as goods were brought into the Fertile Crescent from as far as northern Europe, India, and south of Egypt. The same roads were followed by prospective conquerors as they moved their armies from area to area in quest of power and wealth.<\/p>\n<p>It was the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants, the homeland of God’s chosen people, and the geographical scene for much of biblical history. It has become a land sacred to three great world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Physically, Palestine is a kind of microcosm. In a stretch of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) one can find almost every kind of climate and terrain known on the earth. It has fertile plains, sandy deserts, rocky wastes, forests, mountains, lakes, and rivers. With such a variety in so small an area, the land provides sharp contrasts. In the north, Mt Hermon stands perpetually snowcapped at an altitude of about 9,100 feet (2,773.7 meters), while a scant 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) distant in the subtropical depression of the Jordan Valley is the Dead Sea, representing the deepest spot on the earth.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• Climate<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>This land has been known by many names over its long history. The country seems to have been named after the maritime region, perhaps because this was the area that most foreigners contacted. So the land was called Canaan and later named after Philistia. In the table of nations, Canaan is said to have extended from Sidon in the north toward Gerar as far as Gaza and east toward the Cities of the Plain (Gn 10:19). The name Canaan appears in the Bible; the first occurrence of the name as that of a country or region is in Genesis 11:31.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the country was known as the land of Israel (1 Sm 13:19; 1 Chr 22:2). With the division of the kingdom in the reign of Rehoboam (930 <span>BC<\/span>), the name Israel went with the northern kingdom, and the southern kingdom was known as Judah (later, Judea).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to the extent of Palestine appears in the promise of the land to Abraham and to his descendants (Gn 15:18-21). Here the borders are given as the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) in the southwest to the Euphrates River in the northeast. It is further defined in terms of the peoples who occupied it at that time, 10 in all, including the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites. In Genesis 17:8 the land is called simply “all the land of Canaan.”<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave more detailed directions to Moses concerning the borders of the land that Israel was to occupy (Nm 34:1-12). The southern boundary was to be from the River of Egypt to the south of Kadesh-barnea and along the wilderness of Zin to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. The western boundary was the Mediterranean, the northern border was set at the entrance to Hamath, and the eastern limit was the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest extent of the Promised Land is seen in the Lord’s declaration to Moses that he would set the bounds of Israel from the Red Sea to the Sea of the Philistines (Mediterranean) and from the wilderness to the Euphrates River (Ex 23:31). Historically, during the period of the judges and the reign of Saul, Israel did not conquer the land that had been given to the tribes in the division under Joshua. The military strength of David and the diplomacy of Solomon enabled them to achieve a marked expansion of Israelite rule. David defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and thus pushed his northern frontier to the Euphrates River; he defeated Syria, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Amalek, enlarging the kingdom also to the east and south (2 Sm 8:1-14; 1 Chr 18:1-13). Solomon had a fleet of merchant ships stationed at Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqaba. He also engaged in copper mining in that area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Climate\">Climate<\/p>\n<p>It has been said that the climate of Palestine is more varied than that of any other area of comparable size in the world. Generally, the climate may be described as temperate; at Jerusalem, for example, the temperature extremes range from 26°F (-3.3°C) to 107°F (41.6°C), and the average annual rainfall is about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters). The coastal plain is warmer and has been compared to the east coast of Florida. The average annual temperature at Jaffa (Joppa) is 67° F (19.4°C). The Jordan Valley in the area of the Dead Sea is subtropical; in summer its temperatures may reach 120°F (48.8°C).<\/p>\n<p>Rainfall is seasonal, with rain coming in the cooler months of the year as the prevailing west wind brings moisture over the comparatively colder land area, much like the “lake effect” snows of the Great Lakes region of the United States. The rainy season extends from October to April. Within this time the Israelites singled out two periods (Jer 5:24; Jl 2:23), the former rain and the latter rain, with the former rain occurring in the months of October and November and the latter rain falling in March and April. The coastal area receives about 28 inches (71.1 centimeters) of rain annually, while the average for the country in general is 22 to 24 inches (55.9–70 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>For purposes of description, the land of Palestine may be conveniently divided into five longitudinal sections:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/p>\n<li>2. The Shephelah<\/li>\n<li>3. The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/li>\n<li>4. The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/li>\n<li>5. The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/li>\n<p>These divisions are based essentially on differences in elevation, but other geographic elements also serve to mark their limits or otherwise distinguish them.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/h5>\n<p>The Maritime or Coastal Plain may be divided into three separate plains from south to north: the plain of Philistia, the plain of Sharon, and the plain of Acre.<\/p>\n<p>1. The plain of Philistia begins with the Wadi el-Arish, or River of Egypt, and extends north to the Nahr el-Auja, about five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. This plain is about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) long and reaches its greatest width in the latitude of Gaza, where it measures about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). Along the Mediterranean there were dunes of sand, but for the most part, this area was very fertile and admirably suited for the production of grain.<\/p>\n<li>2. The plain of Sharon is not sharply demarcated from the Philistine plain and was probably under Philistine control, but the OT recognizes it as a separate entity (cf. Sg 2:1; Is 65:10). The plain extends north to Mt Carmel. On the coast are the town of Dor, which is mentioned in “The Tale of Wenamon,” and the city of Caesarea, where Herod the Great did much building.<\/li>\n<li>3. Beyond the promontory of Carmel lies a bay on which was situated the city named Ptolemais (Acts 21:7), also known as Acre or Acco (Jgs 1:31). Here a narrow plain stretches some 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the Ladder of Tyre (Ras en-Nakurah). The Kishon River (Jgs 4:7, 13; 1 Kgs 18:40) flows through this plain to the sea.<\/li>\n<h5>The Shephelah<\/h5>\n<p>The Shephelah constitutes a kind of “midlands,” intermediate between the lowlands of the coastal plain and the highlands of the Western Plateau, with an elevation of about 500 to 1,000 feet (152.4– 304.8 meters) and a width of only a few miles. It extends from the valley of Aijalon to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The valleys of the Shephelah produced grain crops, while the hills were well suited for grapes and olives. The region was very important strategically, because it afforded approaches to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/h5>\n<p>The Western Plateau or Hill Country ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 feet (304.8–609.6 meters) in elevation and covers some 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) from Lebanon to Beersheba. It may also be divided into three areas: Galilee, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>1. Galilee may be regarded as two parts, Upper Galilee (2,000–4,000 feet, or 609.6–1,219.2 meters) and Lower Galilee (below 2,000 feet, or 609.6 meters). The area was agricultural and pastoral, like much of Palestine, and was open to invasion. The highways that traversed Galilee made it a cosmopolitan district, so that Isaiah 9:1 calls it “Galilee of the nations.”<\/p>\n<li>2. Samaria was also suitable for crops and pasture. The brothers of Joseph were grazing their flocks in the plain of Dothan when Joseph visited them and became the victim of their conspiracy (Gn 37:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judea has an elevation of about 2,000 to 3,500 feet (609.6–1,066.8 meters) and reaches some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Bethel to Beersheba. The city of Jerusalem stands at an elevation of 2,654 feet (808.9 meters), surrounded by mountains and valleys that served as part of its defense system (Ps 125:2). This was the heart of the nation, for from the time of David onward, the capital was here, and more important, the ark of the covenant had been brought here during David’s reign. As the Lord had long foretold, Jerusalem had become the center of his worship; here Solomon built the temple, one of the greatest structures ever made.<\/li>\n<h5>The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/h5>\n<p>The Arabah or Jordan Valley presents the extremes of height and depth. Mt Hermon rises to 9,166 feet (2,793.8 meters), while the surface of the Dead Sea lies 1,275 feet (395 meters) below sea level, and at its deepest part the sea plunges another 1,300 feet (396.2 meters).<\/p>\n<p>1. The North Arabah or Upper Jordan Valley. The Jordan River has four sources, all near Mt Hermon. The Jordan flows through what was Lake Huleh, now partly drained and designated as a wildlife refuge. Two miles (3.2 kilometers) below the Huleh basin is the Bridge of Jacob’s Daughters, by which the old road to Damascus crossed the river. The Jordan then flows into a gorge some 1,200 feet (365.8 meters) deep.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Sea of Galilee, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) from Huleh, has an elevation of -685 feet (-208.8 meters). It measures 15 by 8 miles (24.1 by 12.9 kilometers), with a maximum depth of 750 feet (228.6 meters). The shape of the lake gave it the OT name, Chinnereth, meaning “harp” (Nm 34:11; Jos 13:27). In the NT it was also called the Lake of Gennesaret (Lk 5:1) and the Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1; 21:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Middle Arabah, or Ghor. The name Jordan means “descender”; in the 60 miles or 96.5 kilometers (in a straight line) from the outlet of the Sea of Galilee to the northern end of the Dead Sea there is a fall of more than 600 feet (182.9 meters), or 10 feet per mile. The river flows in a series of S-curves or zigzags, so that its actual course between Galilee and the Dead Sea covers some 200 miles (321.8 kilometers).<\/li>\n<p>This stretch of the Jordan Valley is known as the Ghor, or Rift. Six miles (9.7 kilometers) below the Sea of Galilee the Yarmuk River enters from the east. Some smaller streams empty into the Jordan, but the next river of consequence is the Jabbok (Gn 32:22). Just south of the Sea of Galilee the Ghor is about four miles (6.4 kilometers) wide; near Beth-shan it reaches seven miles (11.3 kilometers) wide; beyond that for some 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the mountains close in on the river on both sides, narrowing the valley to two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 kilometers); near Jericho it broadens to about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers).<\/p>\n<li>4. The Dead Sea is unique. Its surface is the deepest point on the face of the earth and its waters are of tremendous wealth. In the OT it is known as the Salt Sea (Gn 14:3; Nm 34:12; Jos 12:3) and the Sea of Arabah (Jos 12:3). Josephus calls it Lake Asphaltitis.<\/li>\n<p>This body of water is 46 miles (74 kilometers) long, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide, and 1,300 feet (396.2 meters) deep and consists of about 25 percent mineral matter, making it a chemical deposit of great value. In addition to the flow of the Jordan, the Dead Sea receives the water of other streams, such as the Arnon River on the east. Much of the runoff of the seasonal rains also finds its way into the Salt Sea. Temperatures in the valley may reach 120° F (48.8° C) in summer; with the extreme humidity the climate is very debilitating and almost unbearable. It is estimated that the daily evaporation from the sea is 6 to 8 million tons (5.4–7.3 million metric tons).<\/p>\n<li>5. The Southern Arabah, mostly a barren wilderness, extends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, a distance of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). There is a gradual ascent from the Dead Sea to a watershed just west of Petra. Near the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba were the ports of Elath (modern Eilat) and Ezion-geber.<\/li>\n<h5>The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/h5>\n<p>The Eastern Plateau, or Transjordan, was not named as part of the land of promise, but it was taken by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh. The region is better supplied with water than the Western Plateau and has perennial streams, such as the Yarmuk, Jabbok, and Arnon. A principal north-south road was the King’s Highway, followed by the Israelites during the exodus (Nm 21:22) and probably also the route taken by the invading kings of Genesis 14.<\/p>\n<p>The northern section of Transjordan was known as Bashan, noted for its cattle (Ps 22:12; Ez 39:18) and for its oak trees (Is 2:13; Zec 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Gilead, famed for its balm (Gn 37:25; Jer 8:22), was often mentioned in the OT (e.g., Dt 3:10-16; Jgs 11). It extended from the Yarmuk River to the city of Heshbon. This area was heavily forested in David’s time (cf. 2 Sm 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine proper there were two important divisions: the plain of Esdraelon and the Negev. The plain of Esdraelon, often associated prophetically with Armageddon, lies between Galilee and Samaria. This is one of the most fertile areas of Palestine and also was the scene of numerous battles. The plain was guarded by fortress cities on its southern side (Megiddo, Ibleam, and Taanach). In the OT the valley of Jezreel was not regarded as a part of Esdraelon but as the valley between the hill of Moreh and Mt Gilboa. At the eastern end was the stronghold of Beth-shan.<\/p>\n<p>In the extreme south of the land is the wilderness area called the Negev, or South Country. This begins in the region of Beersheba and extends roughly to Kadesh-barnea. A district of infrequent and irregular rainfall, its agriculture is restricted, although a nomadic pastoral life has been widely practiced there. <em>See<\/em> Arabah; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Dead Sea; Decapolis; Sea of Galilee; Jordan River; Negev; Shephelah; Transjordan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PALESTINE*<\/h3>\n<p>Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of Asia and Africa and as a continental link between Africa and Europe. Trade moved by well-defined routes as goods were brought into the Fertile Crescent from as far as northern Europe, India, and south of Egypt. The same roads were followed by prospective conquerors as they moved their armies from area to area in quest of power and wealth.<\/p>\n<p>It was the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants, the homeland of God’s chosen people, and the geographical scene for much of biblical history. It has become a land sacred to three great world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Physically, Palestine is a kind of microcosm. In a stretch of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) one can find almost every kind of climate and terrain known on the earth. It has fertile plains, sandy deserts, rocky wastes, forests, mountains, lakes, and rivers. With such a variety in so small an area, the land provides sharp contrasts. In the north, Mt Hermon stands perpetually snowcapped at an altitude of about 9,100 feet (2,773.7 meters), while a scant 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) distant in the subtropical depression of the Jordan Valley is the Dead Sea, representing the deepest spot on the earth.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• Climate<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>This land has been known by many names over its long history. The country seems to have been named after the maritime region, perhaps because this was the area that most foreigners contacted. So the land was called Canaan and later named after Philistia. In the table of nations, Canaan is said to have extended from Sidon in the north toward Gerar as far as Gaza and east toward the Cities of the Plain (Gn 10:19). The name Canaan appears in the Bible; the first occurrence of the name as that of a country or region is in Genesis 11:31.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the country was known as the land of Israel (1 Sm 13:19; 1 Chr 22:2). With the division of the kingdom in the reign of Rehoboam (930 <span>BC<\/span>), the name Israel went with the northern kingdom, and the southern kingdom was known as Judah (later, Judea).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to the extent of Palestine appears in the promise of the land to Abraham and to his descendants (Gn 15:18-21). Here the borders are given as the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) in the southwest to the Euphrates River in the northeast. It is further defined in terms of the peoples who occupied it at that time, 10 in all, including the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites. In Genesis 17:8 the land is called simply “all the land of Canaan.”<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave more detailed directions to Moses concerning the borders of the land that Israel was to occupy (Nm 34:1-12). The southern boundary was to be from the River of Egypt to the south of Kadesh-barnea and along the wilderness of Zin to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. The western boundary was the Mediterranean, the northern border was set at the entrance to Hamath, and the eastern limit was the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest extent of the Promised Land is seen in the Lord’s declaration to Moses that he would set the bounds of Israel from the Red Sea to the Sea of the Philistines (Mediterranean) and from the wilderness to the Euphrates River (Ex 23:31). Historically, during the period of the judges and the reign of Saul, Israel did not conquer the land that had been given to the tribes in the division under Joshua. The military strength of David and the diplomacy of Solomon enabled them to achieve a marked expansion of Israelite rule. David defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and thus pushed his northern frontier to the Euphrates River; he defeated Syria, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Amalek, enlarging the kingdom also to the east and south (2 Sm 8:1-14; 1 Chr 18:1-13). Solomon had a fleet of merchant ships stationed at Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqaba. He also engaged in copper mining in that area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Climate\">Climate<\/p>\n<p>It has been said that the climate of Palestine is more varied than that of any other area of comparable size in the world. Generally, the climate may be described as temperate; at Jerusalem, for example, the temperature extremes range from 26°F (-3.3°C) to 107°F (41.6°C), and the average annual rainfall is about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters). The coastal plain is warmer and has been compared to the east coast of Florida. The average annual temperature at Jaffa (Joppa) is 67° F (19.4°C). The Jordan Valley in the area of the Dead Sea is subtropical; in summer its temperatures may reach 120°F (48.8°C).<\/p>\n<p>Rainfall is seasonal, with rain coming in the cooler months of the year as the prevailing west wind brings moisture over the comparatively colder land area, much like the “lake effect” snows of the Great Lakes region of the United States. The rainy season extends from October to April. Within this time the Israelites singled out two periods (Jer 5:24; Jl 2:23), the former rain and the latter rain, with the former rain occurring in the months of October and November and the latter rain falling in March and April. The coastal area receives about 28 inches (71.1 centimeters) of rain annually, while the average for the country in general is 22 to 24 inches (55.9–70 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>For purposes of description, the land of Palestine may be conveniently divided into five longitudinal sections:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/p>\n<li>2. The Shephelah<\/li>\n<li>3. The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/li>\n<li>4. The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/li>\n<li>5. The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/li>\n<p>These divisions are based essentially on differences in elevation, but other geographic elements also serve to mark their limits or otherwise distinguish them.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/h5>\n<p>The Maritime or Coastal Plain may be divided into three separate plains from south to north: the plain of Philistia, the plain of Sharon, and the plain of Acre.<\/p>\n<p>1. The plain of Philistia begins with the Wadi el-Arish, or River of Egypt, and extends north to the Nahr el-Auja, about five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. This plain is about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) long and reaches its greatest width in the latitude of Gaza, where it measures about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). Along the Mediterranean there were dunes of sand, but for the most part, this area was very fertile and admirably suited for the production of grain.<\/p>\n<li>2. The plain of Sharon is not sharply demarcated from the Philistine plain and was probably under Philistine control, but the OT recognizes it as a separate entity (cf. Sg 2:1; Is 65:10). The plain extends north to Mt Carmel. On the coast are the town of Dor, which is mentioned in “The Tale of Wenamon,” and the city of Caesarea, where Herod the Great did much building.<\/li>\n<li>3. Beyond the promontory of Carmel lies a bay on which was situated the city named Ptolemais (Acts 21:7), also known as Acre or Acco (Jgs 1:31). Here a narrow plain stretches some 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the Ladder of Tyre (Ras en-Nakurah). The Kishon River (Jgs 4:7, 13; 1 Kgs 18:40) flows through this plain to the sea.<\/li>\n<h5>The Shephelah<\/h5>\n<p>The Shephelah constitutes a kind of “midlands,” intermediate between the lowlands of the coastal plain and the highlands of the Western Plateau, with an elevation of about 500 to 1,000 feet (152.4– 304.8 meters) and a width of only a few miles. It extends from the valley of Aijalon to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The valleys of the Shephelah produced grain crops, while the hills were well suited for grapes and olives. The region was very important strategically, because it afforded approaches to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/h5>\n<p>The Western Plateau or Hill Country ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 feet (304.8–609.6 meters) in elevation and covers some 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) from Lebanon to Beersheba. It may also be divided into three areas: Galilee, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>1. Galilee may be regarded as two parts, Upper Galilee (2,000–4,000 feet, or 609.6–1,219.2 meters) and Lower Galilee (below 2,000 feet, or 609.6 meters). The area was agricultural and pastoral, like much of Palestine, and was open to invasion. The highways that traversed Galilee made it a cosmopolitan district, so that Isaiah 9:1 calls it “Galilee of the nations.”<\/p>\n<li>2. Samaria was also suitable for crops and pasture. The brothers of Joseph were grazing their flocks in the plain of Dothan when Joseph visited them and became the victim of their conspiracy (Gn 37:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judea has an elevation of about 2,000 to 3,500 feet (609.6–1,066.8 meters) and reaches some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Bethel to Beersheba. The city of Jerusalem stands at an elevation of 2,654 feet (808.9 meters), surrounded by mountains and valleys that served as part of its defense system (Ps 125:2). This was the heart of the nation, for from the time of David onward, the capital was here, and more important, the ark of the covenant had been brought here during David’s reign. As the Lord had long foretold, Jerusalem had become the center of his worship; here Solomon built the temple, one of the greatest structures ever made.<\/li>\n<h5>The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/h5>\n<p>The Arabah or Jordan Valley presents the extremes of height and depth. Mt Hermon rises to 9,166 feet (2,793.8 meters), while the surface of the Dead Sea lies 1,275 feet (395 meters) below sea level, and at its deepest part the sea plunges another 1,300 feet (396.2 meters).<\/p>\n<p>1. The North Arabah or Upper Jordan Valley. The Jordan River has four sources, all near Mt Hermon. The Jordan flows through what was Lake Huleh, now partly drained and designated as a wildlife refuge. Two miles (3.2 kilometers) below the Huleh basin is the Bridge of Jacob’s Daughters, by which the old road to Damascus crossed the river. The Jordan then flows into a gorge some 1,200 feet (365.8 meters) deep.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Sea of Galilee, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) from Huleh, has an elevation of -685 feet (-208.8 meters). It measures 15 by 8 miles (24.1 by 12.9 kilometers), with a maximum depth of 750 feet (228.6 meters). The shape of the lake gave it the OT name, Chinnereth, meaning “harp” (Nm 34:11; Jos 13:27). In the NT it was also called the Lake of Gennesaret (Lk 5:1) and the Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1; 21:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Middle Arabah, or Ghor. The name Jordan means “descender”; in the 60 miles or 96.5 kilometers (in a straight line) from the outlet of the Sea of Galilee to the northern end of the Dead Sea there is a fall of more than 600 feet (182.9 meters), or 10 feet per mile. The river flows in a series of S-curves or zigzags, so that its actual course between Galilee and the Dead Sea covers some 200 miles (321.8 kilometers).<\/li>\n<p>This stretch of the Jordan Valley is known as the Ghor, or Rift. Six miles (9.7 kilometers) below the Sea of Galilee the Yarmuk River enters from the east. Some smaller streams empty into the Jordan, but the next river of consequence is the Jabbok (Gn 32:22). Just south of the Sea of Galilee the Ghor is about four miles (6.4 kilometers) wide; near Beth-shan it reaches seven miles (11.3 kilometers) wide; beyond that for some 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the mountains close in on the river on both sides, narrowing the valley to two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 kilometers); near Jericho it broadens to about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers).<\/p>\n<li>4. The Dead Sea is unique. Its surface is the deepest point on the face of the earth and its waters are of tremendous wealth. In the OT it is known as the Salt Sea (Gn 14:3; Nm 34:12; Jos 12:3) and the Sea of Arabah (Jos 12:3). Josephus calls it Lake Asphaltitis.<\/li>\n<p>This body of water is 46 miles (74 kilometers) long, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide, and 1,300 feet (396.2 meters) deep and consists of about 25 percent mineral matter, making it a chemical deposit of great value. In addition to the flow of the Jordan, the Dead Sea receives the water of other streams, such as the Arnon River on the east. Much of the runoff of the seasonal rains also finds its way into the Salt Sea. Temperatures in the valley may reach 120° F (48.8° C) in summer; with the extreme humidity the climate is very debilitating and almost unbearable. It is estimated that the daily evaporation from the sea is 6 to 8 million tons (5.4–7.3 million metric tons).<\/p>\n<li>5. The Southern Arabah, mostly a barren wilderness, extends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, a distance of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). There is a gradual ascent from the Dead Sea to a watershed just west of Petra. Near the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba were the ports of Elath (modern Eilat) and Ezion-geber.<\/li>\n<h5>The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/h5>\n<p>The Eastern Plateau, or Transjordan, was not named as part of the land of promise, but it was taken by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh. The region is better supplied with water than the Western Plateau and has perennial streams, such as the Yarmuk, Jabbok, and Arnon. A principal north-south road was the King’s Highway, followed by the Israelites during the exodus (Nm 21:22) and probably also the route taken by the invading kings of Genesis 14.<\/p>\n<p>The northern section of Transjordan was known as Bashan, noted for its cattle (Ps 22:12; Ez 39:18) and for its oak trees (Is 2:13; Zec 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Gilead, famed for its balm (Gn 37:25; Jer 8:22), was often mentioned in the OT (e.g., Dt 3:10-16; Jgs 11). It extended from the Yarmuk River to the city of Heshbon. This area was heavily forested in David’s time (cf. 2 Sm 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine proper there were two important divisions: the plain of Esdraelon and the Negev. The plain of Esdraelon, often associated prophetically with Armageddon, lies between Galilee and Samaria. This is one of the most fertile areas of Palestine and also was the scene of numerous battles. The plain was guarded by fortress cities on its southern side (Megiddo, Ibleam, and Taanach). In the OT the valley of Jezreel was not regarded as a part of Esdraelon but as the valley between the hill of Moreh and Mt Gilboa. At the eastern end was the stronghold of Beth-shan.<\/p>\n<p>In the extreme south of the land is the wilderness area called the Negev, or South Country. This begins in the region of Beersheba and extends roughly to Kadesh-barnea. A district of infrequent and irregular rainfall, its agriculture is restricted, although a nomadic pastoral life has been widely practiced there. <em>See<\/em> Arabah; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Dead Sea; Decapolis; Sea of Galilee; Jordan River; Negev; Shephelah; Transjordan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PALESTINE* Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of A...","summary_en":"PALESTINE* Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of A...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36397,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Succoth","title_en":"Succoth","content_ro":"<h3>SUCCOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Jordan Valley listed along with other towns as belonging to the tribe of Gad (Jos 13:27). It is located in the fertile valley called Ghaur Abu ‘Udeidah, known in the Bible as the valley of Succoth (Pss 60:6; 108:7); it comprises the central portion of the Jordan Valley on the eastern side, between the Wadi Rejeb and the Jabbok River.<\/li>\n<p>The place is mentioned for the first time in the account of Jacob’s meeting with Esau, which occurred just south of Penuel. Jacob went from the meeting to Succoth and built some shelters for his cattle, which is given as the explanation for the name of the settlement (Gn 33:17)—Succoth means “shelters.”<\/p>\n<p>Later, the men of Succoth refused to give food to Gideon and his men when they were pursuing the Midianites (Jgs 8:5-9). Upon his return, Gideon made a point of punishing the elders of Succoth (vv 13-17). The form of social organization reflected in this passage has suggested that the population was not Israelite at the time of Gideon’s visitation.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, Succoth is mentioned with regard to Solomon’s building projects. The metal casting for the important fixtures and implements of the temple was performed in the area between Succoth and Zarethan (1 Kgs 7:46; 2 Chr 4:17). It is possible that Succoth of the monarchical period was destroyed by Shishak of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>It has been proposed that the place-name occurs in two other passages: as the staging area for David’s forces in the battle with Ammon, when the ark and the army were “living in shelters (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sukkoth<\/span>)” (2 Sm 11:11), and as the staging area for Ben-hadad’s troops in his war against Samaria (1 Kgs 20:12, 16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Egypt mentioned as the first station of the Israelites in their exodus from Egypt (Ex 12:37; 13:20; Nm 33:5-6); it appears between Rameses and Etham.<\/li>\n<p>Egyptian sources, texts of the Anastasi collection, refer to a place that is most likely the same as biblical Succoth. An Edomite tribe is recorded as bringing their herds in from the desert to pasture them in the Delta, passing by the strong point at <em>Tkw<\/em> [Old Egyptian for Succoth] (Papyrus Anastasi VI, 54). The military garrison there was commanded by a “commander” of (archer) troops, and the fort was named after Pharaoh Mernephta (Papyrus Anastasi, VI, 55).<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly opinion usually places Succoth at Tell el-Maskhuta, a site near the mouth of the Wadi Tumeilat. <em>See<\/em> map.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SUCCOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Jordan Valley listed along with other towns as belonging to the tribe of Gad (Jos 13:27). It is located in the fertile valley called Ghaur Abu ‘Udeidah, known in the Bible as the valley of Succoth (Pss 60:6; 108:7); it comprises the central portion of the Jordan Valley on the eastern side, between the Wadi Rejeb and the Jabbok River.<\/li>\n<p>The place is mentioned for the first time in the account of Jacob’s meeting with Esau, which occurred just south of Penuel. Jacob went from the meeting to Succoth and built some shelters for his cattle, which is given as the explanation for the name of the settlement (Gn 33:17)—Succoth means “shelters.”<\/p>\n<p>Later, the men of Succoth refused to give food to Gideon and his men when they were pursuing the Midianites (Jgs 8:5-9). Upon his return, Gideon made a point of punishing the elders of Succoth (vv 13-17). The form of social organization reflected in this passage has suggested that the population was not Israelite at the time of Gideon’s visitation.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, Succoth is mentioned with regard to Solomon’s building projects. The metal casting for the important fixtures and implements of the temple was performed in the area between Succoth and Zarethan (1 Kgs 7:46; 2 Chr 4:17). It is possible that Succoth of the monarchical period was destroyed by Shishak of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>It has been proposed that the place-name occurs in two other passages: as the staging area for David’s forces in the battle with Ammon, when the ark and the army were “living in shelters (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sukkoth<\/span>)” (2 Sm 11:11), and as the staging area for Ben-hadad’s troops in his war against Samaria (1 Kgs 20:12, 16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Egypt mentioned as the first station of the Israelites in their exodus from Egypt (Ex 12:37; 13:20; Nm 33:5-6); it appears between Rameses and Etham.<\/li>\n<p>Egyptian sources, texts of the Anastasi collection, refer to a place that is most likely the same as biblical Succoth. An Edomite tribe is recorded as bringing their herds in from the desert to pasture them in the Delta, passing by the strong point at <em>Tkw<\/em> [Old Egyptian for Succoth] (Papyrus Anastasi VI, 54). The military garrison there was commanded by a “commander” of (archer) troops, and the fort was named after Pharaoh Mernephta (Papyrus Anastasi, VI, 55).<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly opinion usually places Succoth at Tell el-Maskhuta, a site near the mouth of the Wadi Tumeilat. <em>See<\/em> map.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SUCCOTH 1. Town in the Jordan Valley listed along with other towns as belonging to the tribe of Gad (Jos 13:27). It is located in the fertile valley called Ghaur Abu ‘Udeidah, known in the Bible as the valley of Succoth (Pss 60:6; 108:7); it comprises the central portion of the Jordan Valley on the eastern side, between the Wadi Rejeb and the Jabbok River. The place is mentioned for the first time in the account of Jacob’s meeting with Esau, which occurred just south of Penuel. Jacob went fro...","summary_en":"SUCCOTH 1. Town in the Jordan Valley listed along with other towns as belonging to the tribe of Gad (Jos 13:27). It is located in the fertile valley called Ghaur Abu ‘Udeidah, known in the Bible as the valley of Succoth (Pss 60:6; 108:7); it comprises the central portion of the Jordan Valley on the eastern side, between the Wadi Rejeb and the Jabbok River. The place is mentioned for the first time in the account of Jacob’s meeting with Esau, which occurred just south of Penuel. Jacob went fro...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38908,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaphon","title_en":"Zaphon","content_ro":"<h3>ZAPHON<\/h3>\n<p>Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century <span>BC<\/span>) refer to a town known as <em>Dapuna,<\/em> while an Amarna text spells the name <em>Sapuna.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZAPHON<\/h3>\n<p>Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century <span>BC<\/span>) refer to a town known as <em>Dapuna,<\/em> while an Amarna text spells the name <em>Sapuna.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"ZAPHON Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century BC) refer to a town known as Dapuna, while an Amarna text spells the name Sapuna.","summary_en":"ZAPHON Town located east of the Jordan River (Jos 13:27) and included as part of the inheritance of Gad’s tribe (v 24). Egyptian records (13th century BC) refer to a town known as Dapuna, while an Amarna text spells the name Sapuna.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":3902,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bashan","title_en":"Bashan","content_ro":"<h3>BASHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Region east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. The exact boundaries of Bashan are difficult to determine, but it extended approximately 35 to 40 miles (55 to 64 kilometers) from the foot of Mt Hermon in the north to the Yarmuk River in the south, and stretched some 60 to 70 miles (97 to 113 kilometers) eastward from the Sea of Galilee.<\/p>\n<p>The region (“Hauran,” Ez 47:16, 18) is mostly a fertile tableland 1,600 to 2,300 feet (488 to 701 meters) in altitude. Its rich volcanic alluvium is well watered because the low hills of southern Galilee to the west allow the rains to sweep farther inland than in most other places along the Palestinian coast. Today, as in ancient times, it is an agriculturally productive region. In NT times it was a grain-producing area of the Roman Empire. Bashan was known for the quality of its cattle and sheep (Dt 32:14; Ez 39:18; Am 4:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarch Abraham’s day, Bashan’s inhabitants were giantlike people called Rephaim (Gn 14:5). Og, the last of the Rephaim, was an enemy of the Israelites as they sought to enter Canaan after their Egyptian bondage and wilderness wandering (Dt 29:7). Og was defeated and slain by the Israelites (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan’s prosperity at that time is indicated by the fact that one of its provinces, Argob, had 60 great walled cities (Dt 3:4-5). The chief cities of Bashan were Edrei, Ashtaroth, Golan, and Salecah. After Israel conquered the territory east of the Jordan River, Bashan was given to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:29-30). Golan and Ashtaroth, two cities in Bashan, were reserved for the Levites (1 Chr 6:71). Ben-geber of Ramoth-gilead administered Argob (a region in Bashan) for King Solomon (1 Kgs 4:13). In the days of Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), King Hazael of Syria conquered the area (2 Kgs 10:33). Tiglath-pileser III incorporated Bashan into the Assyrian Empire in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (15:29). The Nabateans held it in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, and Herod the Great (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled over it at the time of Jesus’ birth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BASHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Region east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. The exact boundaries of Bashan are difficult to determine, but it extended approximately 35 to 40 miles (55 to 64 kilometers) from the foot of Mt Hermon in the north to the Yarmuk River in the south, and stretched some 60 to 70 miles (97 to 113 kilometers) eastward from the Sea of Galilee.<\/p>\n<p>The region (“Hauran,” Ez 47:16, 18) is mostly a fertile tableland 1,600 to 2,300 feet (488 to 701 meters) in altitude. Its rich volcanic alluvium is well watered because the low hills of southern Galilee to the west allow the rains to sweep farther inland than in most other places along the Palestinian coast. Today, as in ancient times, it is an agriculturally productive region. In NT times it was a grain-producing area of the Roman Empire. Bashan was known for the quality of its cattle and sheep (Dt 32:14; Ez 39:18; Am 4:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarch Abraham’s day, Bashan’s inhabitants were giantlike people called Rephaim (Gn 14:5). Og, the last of the Rephaim, was an enemy of the Israelites as they sought to enter Canaan after their Egyptian bondage and wilderness wandering (Dt 29:7). Og was defeated and slain by the Israelites (Nm 21:33-35). Bashan’s prosperity at that time is indicated by the fact that one of its provinces, Argob, had 60 great walled cities (Dt 3:4-5). The chief cities of Bashan were Edrei, Ashtaroth, Golan, and Salecah. After Israel conquered the territory east of the Jordan River, Bashan was given to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:29-30). Golan and Ashtaroth, two cities in Bashan, were reserved for the Levites (1 Chr 6:71). Ben-geber of Ramoth-gilead administered Argob (a region in Bashan) for King Solomon (1 Kgs 4:13). In the days of Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), King Hazael of Syria conquered the area (2 Kgs 10:33). Tiglath-pileser III incorporated Bashan into the Assyrian Empire in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (15:29). The Nabateans held it in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, and Herod the Great (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled over it at the time of Jesus’ birth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BASHAN Region east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. The exact boundaries of Bashan are difficult to determine, but it extended approximately 35 to 40 miles (55 to 64 kilometers) from the foot of Mt Hermon in the north to the Yarmuk River in the south, and stretched some 60 to 70 miles (97 to 113 kilometers) eastward from the Sea of Galilee. The region (“Hauran,” Ez 47:16, 18) is mostly a fertile tableland 1,600 to 2,300 feet (488 to 701 meters) in altitude. Its rich volcanic alluvium is w...","summary_en":"BASHAN Region east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. The exact boundaries of Bashan are difficult to determine, but it extended approximately 35 to 40 miles (55 to 64 kilometers) from the foot of Mt Hermon in the north to the Yarmuk River in the south, and stretched some 60 to 70 miles (97 to 113 kilometers) eastward from the Sea of Galilee. The region (“Hauran,” Ez 47:16, 18) is mostly a fertile tableland 1,600 to 2,300 feet (488 to 701 meters) in altitude. Its rich volcanic alluvium is w...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15495,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Havoth-Jair*, Havvoth-Jair*","title_en":"Havoth-Jair*, Havvoth-Jair*","content_ro":"<h3>HAVOTH-JAIR*, HAVVOTH-JAIR*<\/h3>\n<p>Series of settlements on the edge of Bashan across the Jordan captured by Jair, according to Numbers 32:41 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Because of their location, they fell into the allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The number of these villages is given in Joshua 13:29-30 as 60, and they are probably included in the cities and towns of 1 Chronicles 2:22-23, although only 23 cities are specified as belonging to Jair. The <span>kjv<\/span> rendering as “Bashan-havoth-jair” (Dt 3:14) makes the location as specific as in the Hebrew. In Judges 10:4, a judge named Jair had 30 sons who controlled 30 cities named Havvoth-jair. But he is obviously different from the Jair of Numbers 32:41. If his sons controlled only 30 settlements, he himself probably governed the remaining 30. In 1 Chronicles 2:21-24, which reflects a relationship between Judah and Manasseh, Jair was said to have 23 cities in Gilead when Geshur and Aram captured 60 towns from the tent settlements of Jair and Kenath and its dependencies. While the variant numbers present difficulties, the narrative itself may be the Chronicler’s way of indicating Judah’s sense of sovereignty over Gilead.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAVOTH-JAIR*, HAVVOTH-JAIR*<\/h3>\n<p>Series of settlements on the edge of Bashan across the Jordan captured by Jair, according to Numbers 32:41 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Because of their location, they fell into the allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The number of these villages is given in Joshua 13:29-30 as 60, and they are probably included in the cities and towns of 1 Chronicles 2:22-23, although only 23 cities are specified as belonging to Jair. The <span>kjv<\/span> rendering as “Bashan-havoth-jair” (Dt 3:14) makes the location as specific as in the Hebrew. In Judges 10:4, a judge named Jair had 30 sons who controlled 30 cities named Havvoth-jair. But he is obviously different from the Jair of Numbers 32:41. If his sons controlled only 30 settlements, he himself probably governed the remaining 30. In 1 Chronicles 2:21-24, which reflects a relationship between Judah and Manasseh, Jair was said to have 23 cities in Gilead when Geshur and Aram captured 60 towns from the tent settlements of Jair and Kenath and its dependencies. While the variant numbers present difficulties, the narrative itself may be the Chronicler’s way of indicating Judah’s sense of sovereignty over Gilead.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAVOTH-JAIR*, HAVVOTH-JAIR* Series of settlements on the edge of Bashan across the Jordan captured by Jair, according to Numbers 32:41 (nlt mg). Because of their location, they fell into the allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The number of these villages is given in Joshua 13:29-30 as 60, and they are probably included in the cities and towns of 1 Chronicles 2:22-23, although only 23 cities are specified as belonging to Jair. The kjv rendering as “Bashan-havoth-jair” (Dt 3:14) makes the...","summary_en":"HAVOTH-JAIR*, HAVVOTH-JAIR* Series of settlements on the edge of Bashan across the Jordan captured by Jair, according to Numbers 32:41 (nlt mg). Because of their location, they fell into the allotment of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The number of these villages is given in Joshua 13:29-30 as 60, and they are probably included in the cities and towns of 1 Chronicles 2:22-23, although only 23 cities are specified as belonging to Jair. The kjv rendering as “Bashan-havoth-jair” (Dt 3:14) makes the...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100763,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128389,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143195,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183641,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238893,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253405,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29-33<\/strong> <em>Manasseh<\/em> was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","summary_en":"13:29-33 Manasseh was Joseph’s elder son. Jacob gave Joseph’s sons each a full inheritance, thus giving Joseph a double portion of the birthright (see 14:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":18341,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jair","title_en":"Jair","content_ro":"<h3>JAIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s brother (1 Chr 20:5). In 2 Samuel 21:19 he is called Jaare-oregim.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Mordecai (Est 2:5). Because of the time lapse from the capture of Jeconiah, king of Judah (597 <span>BC<\/span>), to the beginning of the reign of Xerxes, king of Persia (486 <span>BC<\/span>), Jair was either the one taken captive with Jeconiah or his father, Shimei, was, in which case Jair would have been born during the Captivity.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JAIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s brother (1 Chr 20:5). In 2 Samuel 21:19 he is called Jaare-oregim.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Mordecai (Est 2:5). Because of the time lapse from the capture of Jeconiah, king of Judah (597 <span>BC<\/span>), to the beginning of the reign of Xerxes, king of Persia (486 <span>BC<\/span>), Jair was either the one taken captive with Jeconiah or his father, Shimei, was, in which case Jair would have been born during the Captivity.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JAIR 1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23). See also Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair. 2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5). 3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s...","summary_en":"JAIR 1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23). See also Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair. 2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5). 3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100764,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128390,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143197,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":183642,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":198091,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":238894,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":253407,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> <em>Jair<\/em> was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). <em>Makir<\/em> was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","summary_en":"13:30-31 Jair was a great-grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr 2:21-22). Makir was one of Manasseh’s sons. It is unclear whether the land allotted to these tribes in north Gilead was distinguished from the land that the tribe of Gad received there.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":10132,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edrei","title_en":"Edrei","content_ro":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","summary_ro":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","summary_en":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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