Iosua 19
1 A doua parte a căzut prin sorţi lui Simeon, seminţiei fiilor lui Simeon, după familiile lor. Moştenirea lor era în mijlocul moştenirii fiilor lui Iuda.
2 Ei au avut în moştenirea lor: Beer-Şeba, Şeba, Molada,
3 Haţar-Şual, Bala, Aţem,
4 Eltolad, Betul, Horma,
5 Ţiclag, Bet-Marcabot, Haţar-Susa,
6 Bet-Lebaot, şi Şaruhen, treisprezece cetăţi şi satele lor;
7 Ain, Rimon, Eter, şi Aşan, patru cetăţi, şi satele lor;
8 şi toate satele din împrejurimile acestor cetăţi, până la Baalat-Beer, care este Ramatul de miazăzi, Aceasta a fost moştenirea seminţiei fiilor lui Simeon, după familiile lor.
9 Moştenirea fiilor lui Simeon a fost luată din partea de moştenire a fiilor lui Iuda; căci partea fiilor lui Iuda era prea mare pentru ei, şi de aceea fiii lui Simeon şi-au primit pe a lor în mijlocul moştenirii lor.
10 A treia parte a căzut prin sorţi fiilor lui Zabulon după familiile lor.
11 Hotarul moştenirii lor se întindea până la Sarid. La apus se suia spre Mareala, şi atingea Dabeşet, apoi pârâul care curge înaintea Iocneamului.
12 Din Sarid se întorcea spre răsărit, spre răsăritul soarelui, până la hotarul Chislot-Taborului, mergea înainte la Dabrat, şi suia la Iafia.
13 De acolo trecea la răsărit prin Ghita-Hefer, prin Ita-Caţin, mergea la Rimon, şi se întorcea până la Nea.
14 Se întorcea apoi înspre miazănoapte spre Hanaton, şi ieşea la valea Iiftah-El.
15 Coprindea Catat, Nahalal, Şimron, Iideala, Betleem: douăsprezece cetăţi, şi satele lor.
16 Aceasta a fost moştenirea fiilor lui Zabulon, după familiile lor, cetăţile acestea şi satele lor.
17 A patra parte a căzut prin sorţi lui Isahar, fiilor lui Isahar, după familiile lor.
18 Hotarul lor trecea prin Izreel, Chesulot, Sunem,
19 Hafaraim, Şion, Anaharat,
20 Rabit, Chişion, Abeţ,
21 Remet, En-Ganim, En-Hada, şi Bet-Paţeţ;
22 atingea Taborul, Şahaţima, Bet-Şemeş, şi ieşea la Iordan: şasesprezece cetăţi, şi satele lor.
23 Aceasta a fost moştenirea seminţiei fiilor lui Isahar, după familiile lor, cetăţile acestea şi satele lor.
24 A cincea parte a căzut prin sorţi seminţiei fiilor lui Aşer, după familiile lor.
25 Hotarul lor trecea prin Helcat, Hali, Beten, Acşaf,
26 Alamelec, Amead şi Mişeal; atingea, spre apus, Carmelul şi Şihor-Libnat;
27 apoi se întorcea în spre răsărit la Bet-Dagon, se atingea de Zabulon şi de valea Iiftah-El la miazănoapte de Bet-Emec şi Neiel, şi se întindea spre Cabul, la stânga,
28 şi spre Ebron, Rehob, Hamon şi Cana, până la Sidonul cel mare.
29 Se întorcea apoi spre Rama până la cetatea cea tare a Tirului, şi spre Hosa, şi ieşea la mare, prin ţinutul Aczib.
30 Cuprindea: Uma, Afec şi Rehob; douăzeci şi două de cetăţi, şi satele lor.
31 Aceasta a fost moştenirea seminţiei fiilor lui Aşer, după familiile lor, cetăţile acestea şi satele lor.
32 A şasea parte a căzut prin sorţi fiilor lui Neftali, după familiile lor.
33 Hotarul lor se întindea dela Helef, dela Alon, prin Ţaananim, Adami-Necheb şi Iabneel, până la Lacum, şi ieşea la Iordan.
34 Se întorcea spre apus la Aznot-Tabor, şi de acolo mergea înainte la Hucoc; se atingea de Zabulon, în spre miazăzi, de Aşer în spre apus, şi de Iuda; în spre răsărit era Iordanul.
35 Cetăţile tari erau: Ţidim, Ţer, Hamat, Racat, Chineret,
36 Adama, Rama, Haţor,
37 Chedeş, Edrei, En-Haţor,
38 Iireon, Migdal-El, Horem, Bet-Anat şi Bet-Şemeş: nouăsprezece cetăţi, şi satele lor.
39 Aceasta a fost moştenirea seminţiei fiilor lui Neftali, după familiile lor, cetăţile acestea şi satele lor.
40 A şaptea parte a căzut prin sorţi seminţiei fiilor lui Dan, după familiile lor.
41 Hotarul moştenirii lor era Ţorea, Eştaol, Ir-Şemeş,
42 Şaalabin, Aialon, Iitla,
43 Elon, Timnata, Ecron,
44 Elteche, Ghibeton, Baalat,
45 Iehud, Bene-Berac, Gat-Rimon,
46 Me-Iarcon şi Racon, cu hotarul care este faţă în faţă cu Iafo.
47 Ţinutul fiilor lui Dan se întindea şi în afară de acestea. Fiii lui Dan s-au suit şi s-au luptat împotriva lui Leşem; au pus mâna pe el şi l-au trecut prin ascuţişul săbiei; au pus stăpânire pe el, s-au aşezat în el şi l-au numit Dan, după numele tatălui lor Dan.
48 Aceasta a fost moştenirea seminţiei fiilor lui Dan, după familiile lor, cetăţile acestea şi satele lor.
49 Dupăce au isprăvit de împărţit ţara, după hotarele ei, copiii lui Israel au dat lui Iosua, fiul lui Nun, o moştenire în mijlocul lor.
50 După porunca Domnului, i-au dat cetatea pe care o cerea el: Timnat-Serah, în muntele lui Efraim. El a zidit cetatea din nou, şi şi-a aşezat locuinţa acolo.
51 Acestea sânt moştenirile pe cari le-au împărţit preotul Eleazar, Iosua, fiul lui Nun, şi căpeteniile de familie ale seminţiilor copiilor lui Israel, prin sorţi înaintea Domnului, la Silo, la uşa cortului întâlnirii. Astfel au isprăvit ei împărţirea ţării.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1100,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Allotment of the Land","title_en":"Allotment of the Land","content_ro":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","summary_en":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20845,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35415,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Simeon","title_en":"Tribe of Simeon","content_ro":"<h3>SIMEON, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, the list of Levitical towns included Simeon’s with Judah’s (Jos 21:9-16). Inevitably, then, the Simeonites were linked to the kingdom of Judah throughout the period of the monarchy, and its tribal destiny was tied to that of the southern division of the divided monarchy. However, in spite of their minor inheritance within Judah’s tribe, the Simeonites were able to preserve to some extent their own tribal identity, unity, and traditions, as indicated by the keeping of genealogical records, even to the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah (1 Chr 4:24-42).<\/p>\n<p>During Hezekiah’s reign, Simeonites took possession of and settled the Arab areas of Seir (1 Chr 4:24-43) and perhaps the hill country of Ephraim (2 Chr 15:9). Although Simeon was Jacob’s second-oldest son, his progeny never achieved a position of prominence in Israel, either before or after the conquest and occupation of Canaan. For example, the tribe apparently provided no judges, and the Song of Deborah contains no references to this group (see Jgs 5). According to 1 Chronicles 4:28-33, Simeon’s tribe settled in the southern extremes of Canaan (called the Negev in Hebrew)—an extensive region, consisting largely of dry, parched land, but with an annual rainfall and perennial springs that ensured fertility in the early summer. This explains why Simeon’s territory is also called “the Negev of Judah,” a phrase that serves to differentiate them from other racial groups occupying parts of southern Canaan (1 Sm 27:10; 30:14; 2 Sm 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>The genealogies of the Simeonites reveal a certain amount of intermarriage with other Israelite tribes and, indeed, with non-Israelites as well. Shaul, Simeon’s son, was the son of a Canaanite woman (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15). Two of Simeon’s sons (1 Chr 4:25) bear names of Ishmael’s sons (Gn 25:13-14; 1 Chr 1:29-30), and Jamin (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15) was a descendant of Ram (1 Chr 2:27).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Simeon’s tribe appears seventh in the list of the tribes who are sealed by God (Rv 7:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIMEON, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, the list of Levitical towns included Simeon’s with Judah’s (Jos 21:9-16). Inevitably, then, the Simeonites were linked to the kingdom of Judah throughout the period of the monarchy, and its tribal destiny was tied to that of the southern division of the divided monarchy. However, in spite of their minor inheritance within Judah’s tribe, the Simeonites were able to preserve to some extent their own tribal identity, unity, and traditions, as indicated by the keeping of genealogical records, even to the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah (1 Chr 4:24-42).<\/p>\n<p>During Hezekiah’s reign, Simeonites took possession of and settled the Arab areas of Seir (1 Chr 4:24-43) and perhaps the hill country of Ephraim (2 Chr 15:9). Although Simeon was Jacob’s second-oldest son, his progeny never achieved a position of prominence in Israel, either before or after the conquest and occupation of Canaan. For example, the tribe apparently provided no judges, and the Song of Deborah contains no references to this group (see Jgs 5). According to 1 Chronicles 4:28-33, Simeon’s tribe settled in the southern extremes of Canaan (called the Negev in Hebrew)—an extensive region, consisting largely of dry, parched land, but with an annual rainfall and perennial springs that ensured fertility in the early summer. This explains why Simeon’s territory is also called “the Negev of Judah,” a phrase that serves to differentiate them from other racial groups occupying parts of southern Canaan (1 Sm 27:10; 30:14; 2 Sm 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>The genealogies of the Simeonites reveal a certain amount of intermarriage with other Israelite tribes and, indeed, with non-Israelites as well. Shaul, Simeon’s son, was the son of a Canaanite woman (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15). Two of Simeon’s sons (1 Chr 4:25) bear names of Ishmael’s sons (Gn 25:13-14; 1 Chr 1:29-30), and Jamin (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15) was a descendant of Ram (1 Chr 2:27).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Simeon’s tribe appears seventh in the list of the tribes who are sealed by God (Rv 7:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIMEON, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7). According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, th...","summary_en":"SIMEON, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7). According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, th...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37521,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Token","title_en":"Token","content_ro":"<h3>TOKEN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the villages settled by Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:32, <span>kjv<\/span> “Tochen”). The name does not appear in the parallel passage in Joshua 19, but in that list it does appear as Thokka in the Septuagint.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOKEN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the villages settled by Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:32, <span>kjv<\/span> “Tochen”). The name does not appear in the parallel passage in Joshua 19, but in that list it does appear as Thokka in the Septuagint.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOKEN One of the villages settled by Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:32, kjv “Tochen”). The name does not appear in the parallel passage in Joshua 19, but in that list it does appear as Thokka in the Septuagint.","summary_en":"TOKEN One of the villages settled by Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:32, kjv “Tochen”). The name does not appear in the parallel passage in Joshua 19, but in that list it does appear as Thokka in the Septuagint.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45565,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","summary_en":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","summary_en":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","summary_en":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1<\/strong> <em>Simeon<\/em>, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of <em>Judah’s territory<\/em> on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","summary_en":"19:1 Simeon, Jacob and Leah’s second son, was older than Judah. However, he had forfeited a leading role with his violent actions against Shechem (Gen 34:25-26). The tribal inheritance of his descendants reflected this; their land was carved out of Judah’s territory on the southern periphery of the Negev. This arid land was far from any centers of influence and power.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":26178,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moladah","title_en":"Moladah","content_ro":"<h3>MOLADAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities belonging to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:26), later assigned to Simeon (Jos 19:2; 1 Chr 4:28). The people of Judah resettled that area after the exile (Neh 11:26).<\/p>\n<p>Some consider Moladah identical to Malatha, which became an Idumean fortress occupied by the Edomites (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.6.2). Others place it by Jattir, at modern Khureibet el-Waten, as do Jerome and Eusebius. The evidence is, however, too obscure to make certain identification.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOLADAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities belonging to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:26), later assigned to Simeon (Jos 19:2; 1 Chr 4:28). The people of Judah resettled that area after the exile (Neh 11:26).<\/p>\n<p>Some consider Moladah identical to Malatha, which became an Idumean fortress occupied by the Edomites (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.6.2). Others place it by Jattir, at modern Khureibet el-Waten, as do Jerome and Eusebius. The evidence is, however, too obscure to make certain identification.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOLADAH One of the cities belonging to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:26), later assigned to Simeon (Jos 19:2; 1 Chr 4:28). The people of Judah resettled that area after the exile (Neh 11:26). Some consider Moladah identical to Malatha, which became an Idumean fortress occupied by the Edomites (Josephus’s Antiquities 18.6.2). Others place it by Jattir, at modern Khureibet el-Waten, as do Jerome and Eusebius. The evidence is, however, too obscure to make certain identification.","summary_en":"MOLADAH One of the cities belonging to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:26), later assigned to Simeon (Jos 19:2; 1 Chr 4:28). The people of Judah resettled that area after the exile (Neh 11:26). Some consider Moladah identical to Malatha, which became an Idumean fortress occupied by the Edomites (Josephus’s Antiquities 18.6.2). Others place it by Jattir, at modern Khureibet el-Waten, as do Jerome and Eusebius. The evidence is, however, too obscure to make certain identification.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34715,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheba (Place)","title_en":"Sheba (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of 14 cities listed in Joshua 19:2 that were assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. Since the verse says there were 13 cities, not 14, it is possible that “Shebe” was repeated in the list as a shortened form of “Beersheba,” as many translations indicate. The LXX, however, names this town Shema (cf. Jos 15:26).<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory located in southwestern Arabia known also as the kingdom of Saba (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Seba’<\/span>). The Sabeans were of Semitic descent and were governed by a priest-king in the royal city of Ma’rib.<\/li>\n<p>They were a merchant people holding trade relations with Israel and other countries as far east as India. Rich in spices, precious stones, and agricultural commodities, the people of Sheba (Saba) established a network of overland and sea routes to trade their wares (Ps 72:10, 15; Is 60:6; Jer 6:20; Ez 27:22-23). Numerous inscriptions have been found, attesting to the Sabean civilization in southern Arabia and their travels.<\/p>\n<p>During the Solomonic era (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>), the queen of Sheba traveled to Jerusalem to see Solomon’s riches and to test his wisdom with riddles. Solomon exceeded her expectations on both counts (1 Kgs 10:1-13; 2 Chr 9:1-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of 14 cities listed in Joshua 19:2 that were assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. Since the verse says there were 13 cities, not 14, it is possible that “Shebe” was repeated in the list as a shortened form of “Beersheba,” as many translations indicate. The LXX, however, names this town Shema (cf. Jos 15:26).<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory located in southwestern Arabia known also as the kingdom of Saba (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Seba’<\/span>). The Sabeans were of Semitic descent and were governed by a priest-king in the royal city of Ma’rib.<\/li>\n<p>They were a merchant people holding trade relations with Israel and other countries as far east as India. Rich in spices, precious stones, and agricultural commodities, the people of Sheba (Saba) established a network of overland and sea routes to trade their wares (Ps 72:10, 15; Is 60:6; Jer 6:20; Ez 27:22-23). Numerous inscriptions have been found, attesting to the Sabean civilization in southern Arabia and their travels.<\/p>\n<p>During the Solomonic era (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>), the queen of Sheba traveled to Jerusalem to see Solomon’s riches and to test his wisdom with riddles. Solomon exceeded her expectations on both counts (1 Kgs 10:1-13; 2 Chr 9:1-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEBA (Place) 1. One of 14 cities listed in Joshua 19:2 that were assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. Since the verse says there were 13 cities, not 14, it is possible that “Shebe” was repeated in the list as a shortened form of “Beersheba,” as many translations indicate. The LXX, however, names this town Shema (cf. Jos 15:26). 2. Territory located in southwestern Arabia known also as the kingdom of Saba (Hebrew Seba’). The Sabeans were of Semitic de...","summary_en":"SHEBA (Place) 1. One of 14 cities listed in Joshua 19:2 that were assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. Since the verse says there were 13 cities, not 14, it is possible that “Shebe” was repeated in the list as a shortened form of “Beersheba,” as many translations indicate. The LXX, however, names this town Shema (cf. Jos 15:26). 2. Territory located in southwestern Arabia known also as the kingdom of Saba (Hebrew Seba’). The Sabeans were of Semitic de...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34875,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shema (Place)","title_en":"Shema (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 29 cities located near the border of Edom in the southern extremity of the land inherited by Judah, mentioned between the cities of Amam and Moladah (Jos 15:26). In the parallel list at Joshua 19:2, Sheba (the LXX has “Shema”) was one of 13 cities assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. <em>See<\/em> Sheba #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 29 cities located near the border of Edom in the southern extremity of the land inherited by Judah, mentioned between the cities of Amam and Moladah (Jos 15:26). In the parallel list at Joshua 19:2, Sheba (the LXX has “Shema”) was one of 13 cities assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. <em>See<\/em> Sheba #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEMA (Place) One of the 29 cities located near the border of Edom in the southern extremity of the land inherited by Judah, mentioned between the cities of Amam and Moladah (Jos 15:26). In the parallel list at Joshua 19:2, Sheba (the LXX has “Shema”) was one of 13 cities assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. See Sheba #1.","summary_en":"SHEMA (Place) One of the 29 cities located near the border of Edom in the southern extremity of the land inherited by Judah, mentioned between the cities of Amam and Moladah (Jos 15:26). In the parallel list at Joshua 19:2, Sheba (the LXX has “Shema”) was one of 13 cities assigned to Simeon’s tribe within the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance. See Sheba #1.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45566,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","summary_en":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","summary_en":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","summary_en":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:2","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:2-9<\/strong> Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because <em>Judah’s territory was too large for them<\/em> (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","summary_en":"19:2-9 Some of the towns given to the tribe of Simeon were also part of Judah’s allocation because Judah’s territory was too large for them (cp. 17:14-18). Judah apparently absorbed most of Simeon’s territory into its own before the end of the Old Testament period.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":3315,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azem*","title_en":"Azem*","content_ro":"<h3>AZEM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Ezem, a town in the Negev Desert area, in Joshua 15:29 and 19:3. <em>See<\/em> Ezem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AZEM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Ezem, a town in the Negev Desert area, in Joshua 15:29 and 19:3. <em>See<\/em> Ezem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AZEM* KJV form of Ezem, a town in the Negev Desert area, in Joshua 15:29 and 19:3. See Ezem.","summary_en":"AZEM* KJV form of Ezem, a town in the Negev Desert area, in Joshua 15:29 and 19:3. See Ezem.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3526,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Balah","title_en":"Balah","content_ro":"<h3>BALAH<\/h3>\n<p>City in southern Canaan (Jos 19:3), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Bilhah (1 Chr 4:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BALAH<\/h3>\n<p>City in southern Canaan (Jos 19:3), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Bilhah (1 Chr 4:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BALAH City in southern Canaan (Jos 19:3), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Bilhah (1 Chr 4:29).","summary_en":"BALAH City in southern Canaan (Jos 19:3), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Bilhah (1 Chr 4:29).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4938,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bilhah (Place)","title_en":"Bilhah (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the territory allotted to Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:29), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Balah (19:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILHAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the territory allotted to Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:29), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Balah (19:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILHAH (Place) Town in the territory allotted to Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:29), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Balah (19:3).","summary_en":"BILHAH (Place) Town in the territory allotted to Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:29), probably identical with Baalah (Jos 15:29) and Balah (19:3).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11758,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ezem","title_en":"Ezem","content_ro":"<h3>EZEM<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:29), then later to Simeon’s tribe, for an inheritance (Jos 19:3; 1 Chr 4:29). Joshua 15 locates the city in the extreme southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZEM<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:29), then later to Simeon’s tribe, for an inheritance (Jos 19:3; 1 Chr 4:29). Joshua 15 locates the city in the extreme southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZEM City allotted to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:29), then later to Simeon’s tribe, for an inheritance (Jos 19:3; 1 Chr 4:29). Joshua 15 locates the city in the extreme southern part of Canaan.","summary_en":"EZEM City allotted to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:29), then later to Simeon’s tribe, for an inheritance (Jos 19:3; 1 Chr 4:29). Joshua 15 locates the city in the extreme southern part of Canaan.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15517,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hazar-Shual","title_en":"Hazar-Shual","content_ro":"<h3>HAZAR-SHUAL<\/h3>\n<p>Simeonite city located in the southern section of Judah (Jos 15:28; 19:3; 1 Chr 4:28). It is also listed among those cities occupied by the Jews who returned from captivity (Neh 11:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAZAR-SHUAL<\/h3>\n<p>Simeonite city located in the southern section of Judah (Jos 15:28; 19:3; 1 Chr 4:28). It is also listed among those cities occupied by the Jews who returned from captivity (Neh 11:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAZAR-SHUAL Simeonite city located in the southern section of Judah (Jos 15:28; 19:3; 1 Chr 4:28). It is also listed among those cities occupied by the Jews who returned from captivity (Neh 11:27).","summary_en":"HAZAR-SHUAL Simeonite city located in the southern section of Judah (Jos 15:28; 19:3; 1 Chr 4:28). It is also listed among those cities occupied by the Jews who returned from captivity (Neh 11:27).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":4583,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethul (Place) Bethuel","title_en":"Bethul (Place) Bethuel","content_ro":"<h3>BETHUEL, BETHUL (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities allotted to Simeon’s tribe within Judah’s inheritance (1 Chr 4:30). Bethuel is alternately called Bethul in Joshua 19:4, and is perhaps identifiable with Chesil (Kesil), a city assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:30), and with Bethel in the Negev to which David sent spoils (1 Sm 30:27). <em>See<\/em> Kesil.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETHUEL, BETHUL (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities allotted to Simeon’s tribe within Judah’s inheritance (1 Chr 4:30). Bethuel is alternately called Bethul in Joshua 19:4, and is perhaps identifiable with Chesil (Kesil), a city assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:30), and with Bethel in the Negev to which David sent spoils (1 Sm 30:27). <em>See<\/em> Kesil.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETHUEL, BETHUL (Place) One of the cities allotted to Simeon’s tribe within Judah’s inheritance (1 Chr 4:30). Bethuel is alternately called Bethul in Joshua 19:4, and is perhaps identifiable with Chesil (Kesil), a city assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:30), and with Bethel in the Negev to which David sent spoils (1 Sm 30:27). See Kesil.","summary_en":"BETHUEL, BETHUL (Place) One of the cities allotted to Simeon’s tribe within Judah’s inheritance (1 Chr 4:30). Bethuel is alternately called Bethul in Joshua 19:4, and is perhaps identifiable with Chesil (Kesil), a city assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:30), and with Bethel in the Negev to which David sent spoils (1 Sm 30:27). See Kesil.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10764,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eltolad","title_en":"Eltolad","content_ro":"<h3>ELTOLAD<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Simeon’s tribe in the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance (Jos 15:30; 19:4). It is alternately called Tolad in 1 Chronicles 4:29.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELTOLAD<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Simeon’s tribe in the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance (Jos 15:30; 19:4). It is alternately called Tolad in 1 Chronicles 4:29.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELTOLAD Town assigned to Simeon’s tribe in the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance (Jos 15:30; 19:4). It is alternately called Tolad in 1 Chronicles 4:29.","summary_en":"ELTOLAD Town assigned to Simeon’s tribe in the southern portion of Judah’s inheritance (Jos 15:30; 19:4). It is alternately called Tolad in 1 Chronicles 4:29.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16674,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hormah","title_en":"Hormah","content_ro":"<h3>HORMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Beersheba in the Negev and on the border of the tribes of Judah and Simeon. Originally a Canaanite settlement, it became Judah’s according to Joshua 15:30 and then Simeon’s according to Joshua 19:4, 9. Judah dominated it again by the time of the early monarchy (1 Sm 30:30). The change of the Canaanite name Zephath to Hormah when the Hebrews first conquered it is noted in Judges 1:17. Hormah took David’s side during his running feud with King Saul and David rewarded the town by sending it some of the spoils of Ziklag (1 Sm 30). Joshua 15:30 describes it as being in the south near Kesil and Ziklag, but its precise location remains unknown. From the reference in Numbers 14:45, it could well be south of Kadesh-barnea, where the Israelites spent much of the wilderness period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HORMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Beersheba in the Negev and on the border of the tribes of Judah and Simeon. Originally a Canaanite settlement, it became Judah’s according to Joshua 15:30 and then Simeon’s according to Joshua 19:4, 9. Judah dominated it again by the time of the early monarchy (1 Sm 30:30). The change of the Canaanite name Zephath to Hormah when the Hebrews first conquered it is noted in Judges 1:17. Hormah took David’s side during his running feud with King Saul and David rewarded the town by sending it some of the spoils of Ziklag (1 Sm 30). Joshua 15:30 describes it as being in the south near Kesil and Ziklag, but its precise location remains unknown. From the reference in Numbers 14:45, it could well be south of Kadesh-barnea, where the Israelites spent much of the wilderness period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HORMAH Town near Beersheba in the Negev and on the border of the tribes of Judah and Simeon. Originally a Canaanite settlement, it became Judah’s according to Joshua 15:30 and then Simeon’s according to Joshua 19:4, 9. Judah dominated it again by the time of the early monarchy (1 Sm 30:30). The change of the Canaanite name Zephath to Hormah when the Hebrews first conquered it is noted in Judges 1:17. Hormah took David’s side during his running feud with King Saul and David rewarded the town b...","summary_en":"HORMAH Town near Beersheba in the Negev and on the border of the tribes of Judah and Simeon. Originally a Canaanite settlement, it became Judah’s according to Joshua 15:30 and then Simeon’s according to Joshua 19:4, 9. Judah dominated it again by the time of the early monarchy (1 Sm 30:30). The change of the Canaanite name Zephath to Hormah when the Hebrews first conquered it is noted in Judges 1:17. Hormah took David’s side during his running feud with King Saul and David rewarded the town b...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21646,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kesil","title_en":"Kesil","content_ro":"<h3>KESIL<\/h3>\n<p>City situated along the borders of Edom in the Negev, allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:30). In parallel lists of towns Kesil is replaced by Bethul (Jos 19:4), Bethuel (1 Chr 4:30), and perhaps Bethel—not to be confused with the Bethel north of Jerusalem (1 Sm 30:27). Bethuel or Bethul is considered by many textual critics to be the original name, with Kesil as a later textual variant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bethuel, Bethul (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KESIL<\/h3>\n<p>City situated along the borders of Edom in the Negev, allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:30). In parallel lists of towns Kesil is replaced by Bethul (Jos 19:4), Bethuel (1 Chr 4:30), and perhaps Bethel—not to be confused with the Bethel north of Jerusalem (1 Sm 30:27). Bethuel or Bethul is considered by many textual critics to be the original name, with Kesil as a later textual variant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bethuel, Bethul (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KESIL City situated along the borders of Edom in the Negev, allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:30). In parallel lists of towns Kesil is replaced by Bethul (Jos 19:4), Bethuel (1 Chr 4:30), and perhaps Bethel—not to be confused with the Bethel north of Jerusalem (1 Sm 30:27). Bethuel or Bethul is considered by many textual critics to be the original name, with Kesil as a later textual variant. See also Bethuel, Bethul (Place).","summary_en":"KESIL City situated along the borders of Edom in the Negev, allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:30). In parallel lists of towns Kesil is replaced by Bethul (Jos 19:4), Bethuel (1 Chr 4:30), and perhaps Bethel—not to be confused with the Bethel north of Jerusalem (1 Sm 30:27). Bethuel or Bethul is considered by many textual critics to be the original name, with Kesil as a later textual variant. See also Bethuel, Bethul (Place).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":4518,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Marcaboth","title_en":"Beth-Marcaboth","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-MARCABOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City in Judah’s territory given to the tribe of Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:31), possibly the same as Madmannah (Jos 15:31). The name Beth-marcaboth means “house of chariots,” and consequently some have seen a link to the chariot cities of Solomon (1 Kgs 9:19; 10:26). Its location is unknown unless it can be identified with Madmannah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-MARCABOTH<\/h3>\n<p>City in Judah’s territory given to the tribe of Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:31), possibly the same as Madmannah (Jos 15:31). The name Beth-marcaboth means “house of chariots,” and consequently some have seen a link to the chariot cities of Solomon (1 Kgs 9:19; 10:26). Its location is unknown unless it can be identified with Madmannah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-MARCABOTH City in Judah’s territory given to the tribe of Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:31), possibly the same as Madmannah (Jos 15:31). The name Beth-marcaboth means “house of chariots,” and consequently some have seen a link to the chariot cities of Solomon (1 Kgs 9:19; 10:26). Its location is unknown unless it can be identified with Madmannah.","summary_en":"BETH-MARCABOTH City in Judah’s territory given to the tribe of Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:31), possibly the same as Madmannah (Jos 15:31). The name Beth-marcaboth means “house of chariots,” and consequently some have seen a link to the chariot cities of Solomon (1 Kgs 9:19; 10:26). Its location is unknown unless it can be identified with Madmannah.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15520,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hazar-Susim Hazar-Susah","title_en":"Hazar-Susim Hazar-Susah","content_ro":"<h3>HAZAR-SUSAH, HAZAR-SUSIM<\/h3>\n<p>City assigned to Simeon within the territory allotted to Judah for an inheritance (Jos 19:5); alternately called Hazar-susim (1 Chr 4:31). Solomon probably used it as a transfer point for horses brought from Egypt for sale to the Hittites and Syrians, as suggested by its name, meaning “horse station.” Hazar-susah has been identified with Sbalat Abu Susein, east of the Wadi Far’ah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAZAR-SUSAH, HAZAR-SUSIM<\/h3>\n<p>City assigned to Simeon within the territory allotted to Judah for an inheritance (Jos 19:5); alternately called Hazar-susim (1 Chr 4:31). Solomon probably used it as a transfer point for horses brought from Egypt for sale to the Hittites and Syrians, as suggested by its name, meaning “horse station.” Hazar-susah has been identified with Sbalat Abu Susein, east of the Wadi Far’ah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAZAR-SUSAH, HAZAR-SUSIM City assigned to Simeon within the territory allotted to Judah for an inheritance (Jos 19:5); alternately called Hazar-susim (1 Chr 4:31). Solomon probably used it as a transfer point for horses brought from Egypt for sale to the Hittites and Syrians, as suggested by its name, meaning “horse station.” Hazar-susah has been identified with Sbalat Abu Susein, east of the Wadi Far’ah.","summary_en":"HAZAR-SUSAH, HAZAR-SUSIM City assigned to Simeon within the territory allotted to Judah for an inheritance (Jos 19:5); alternately called Hazar-susim (1 Chr 4:31). Solomon probably used it as a transfer point for horses brought from Egypt for sale to the Hittites and Syrians, as suggested by its name, meaning “horse station.” Hazar-susah has been identified with Sbalat Abu Susein, east of the Wadi Far’ah.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33909,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sansannah","title_en":"Sansannah","content_ro":"<h3>SANSANNAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of 29 cities at the southern extremity of the land inherited by the sons of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is possibly the same city as Hazar-susah mentioned in a parallel description of the territory allotted to Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (19:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SANSANNAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of 29 cities at the southern extremity of the land inherited by the sons of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is possibly the same city as Hazar-susah mentioned in a parallel description of the territory allotted to Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (19:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SANSANNAH One of 29 cities at the southern extremity of the land inherited by the sons of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is possibly the same city as Hazar-susah mentioned in a parallel description of the territory allotted to Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (19:5).","summary_en":"SANSANNAH One of 29 cities at the southern extremity of the land inherited by the sons of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is possibly the same city as Hazar-susah mentioned in a parallel description of the territory allotted to Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (19:5).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39327,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ziklag","title_en":"Ziklag","content_ro":"<h3>ZIKLAG<\/h3>\n<p>Philistine city ruled by David for 16 months before he moved to Hebron to become the king of Judah. Ziklag was deeded to David by Achish of Gath, presumably to ensure David’s continued neutrality (1 Sm 27:6; 1 Chr 12:1). The location of Ziklag is difficult to determine despite its prominence in the early history of Israel. In the record of the land allotments following the Conquest, Ziklag appears to be located in the extreme south of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is later described as part of the allotment within western Judah that was granted to Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:30). Ziklag was most likely located somewhere on the frontier between Philistia and Judah, southeast of Gaza (possibly Tell el-Khuweilfeh).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIKLAG<\/h3>\n<p>Philistine city ruled by David for 16 months before he moved to Hebron to become the king of Judah. Ziklag was deeded to David by Achish of Gath, presumably to ensure David’s continued neutrality (1 Sm 27:6; 1 Chr 12:1). The location of Ziklag is difficult to determine despite its prominence in the early history of Israel. In the record of the land allotments following the Conquest, Ziklag appears to be located in the extreme south of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is later described as part of the allotment within western Judah that was granted to Simeon (Jos 19:5; 1 Chr 4:30). Ziklag was most likely located somewhere on the frontier between Philistia and Judah, southeast of Gaza (possibly Tell el-Khuweilfeh).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIKLAG Philistine city ruled by David for 16 months before he moved to Hebron to become the king of Judah. Ziklag was deeded to David by Achish of Gath, presumably to ensure David’s continued neutrality (1 Sm 27:6; 1 Chr 12:1). The location of Ziklag is difficult to determine despite its prominence in the early history of Israel. In the record of the land allotments following the Conquest, Ziklag appears to be located in the extreme south of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is later described as part of...","summary_en":"ZIKLAG Philistine city ruled by David for 16 months before he moved to Hebron to become the king of Judah. Ziklag was deeded to David by Achish of Gath, presumably to ensure David’s continued neutrality (1 Sm 27:6; 1 Chr 12:1). The location of Ziklag is difficult to determine despite its prominence in the early history of Israel. In the record of the land allotments following the Conquest, Ziklag appears to be located in the extreme south of Judah (Jos 15:31). It is later described as part of...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":4492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Lebaoth","title_en":"Beth-Lebaoth","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-LEBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Lebaoth, a city of Simeon in the southern extremity of Judah’s tribe, in Joshua 19:6. <em>See<\/em> Lebaoth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-LEBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Lebaoth, a city of Simeon in the southern extremity of Judah’s tribe, in Joshua 19:6. <em>See<\/em> Lebaoth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-LEBAOTH Alternate name for Lebaoth, a city of Simeon in the southern extremity of Judah’s tribe, in Joshua 19:6. See Lebaoth.","summary_en":"BETH-LEBAOTH Alternate name for Lebaoth, a city of Simeon in the southern extremity of Judah’s tribe, in Joshua 19:6. See Lebaoth.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lebaoth","title_en":"Lebaoth","content_ro":"<h3>LEBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:32) occupied by the tribe of Simeon under the name Beth-lebaoth (19:6). The parallel list of Simeonite towns has Beth-biri in this place (1 Chr 4:31). The element <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">beth<\/span><em>,<\/em> “house of,” is undoubtedly original, denoting a place of worship of the goddess of the lions <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lebaoth<\/span><em>)<\/em>; Beth-biri might be another place or just a textual variant typical of the list in 1 Chronicles.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:32) occupied by the tribe of Simeon under the name Beth-lebaoth (19:6). The parallel list of Simeonite towns has Beth-biri in this place (1 Chr 4:31). The element <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">beth<\/span><em>,<\/em> “house of,” is undoubtedly original, denoting a place of worship of the goddess of the lions <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lebaoth<\/span><em>)<\/em>; Beth-biri might be another place or just a textual variant typical of the list in 1 Chronicles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEBAOTH Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:32) occupied by the tribe of Simeon under the name Beth-lebaoth (19:6). The parallel list of Simeonite towns has Beth-biri in this place (1 Chr 4:31). The element beth, “house of,” is undoubtedly original, denoting a place of worship of the goddess of the lions (lebaoth); Beth-biri might be another place or just a textual variant typical of the list in 1 Chronicles.","summary_en":"LEBAOTH Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:32) occupied by the tribe of Simeon under the name Beth-lebaoth (19:6). The parallel list of Simeonite towns has Beth-biri in this place (1 Chr 4:31). The element beth, “house of,” is undoubtedly original, denoting a place of worship of the goddess of the lions (lebaoth); Beth-biri might be another place or just a textual variant typical of the list in 1 Chronicles.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34556,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shaaraim","title_en":"Shaaraim","content_ro":"<h3>SHAARAIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of 14 cities in the lowland region of the territory allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Azekah and Adithaim (Jos 15:36). Shaaraim was in the direction in which the Philistines tried to escape from the pursuing Israelites following David’s slaying of Goliath (1 Sm 17:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of 14 cities where the sons of Shimei, a descendant of Simeon, lived until David’s reign (1 Chr 4:31). It is possibly the same city as Sharuhen (Jos 19:6), mentioned in a parallel passage, and Shilhim, located in the southern portion of Judah near Edom’s border (15:32).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHAARAIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of 14 cities in the lowland region of the territory allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Azekah and Adithaim (Jos 15:36). Shaaraim was in the direction in which the Philistines tried to escape from the pursuing Israelites following David’s slaying of Goliath (1 Sm 17:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of 14 cities where the sons of Shimei, a descendant of Simeon, lived until David’s reign (1 Chr 4:31). It is possibly the same city as Sharuhen (Jos 19:6), mentioned in a parallel passage, and Shilhim, located in the southern portion of Judah near Edom’s border (15:32).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHAARAIM 1. One of 14 cities in the lowland region of the territory allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Azekah and Adithaim (Jos 15:36). Shaaraim was in the direction in which the Philistines tried to escape from the pursuing Israelites following David’s slaying of Goliath (1 Sm 17:52). 2. One of 14 cities where the sons of Shimei, a descendant of Simeon, lived until David’s reign (1 Chr 4:31). It is possibly the same city as Sharuhen (Jos 19:6), mentioned in a parall...","summary_en":"SHAARAIM 1. One of 14 cities in the lowland region of the territory allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Azekah and Adithaim (Jos 15:36). Shaaraim was in the direction in which the Philistines tried to escape from the pursuing Israelites following David’s slaying of Goliath (1 Sm 17:52). 2. One of 14 cities where the sons of Shimei, a descendant of Simeon, lived until David’s reign (1 Chr 4:31). It is possibly the same city as Sharuhen (Jos 19:6), mentioned in a parall...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34682,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sharuhen","title_en":"Sharuhen","content_ro":"<h3>SHARUHEN<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Shaaraim, a city in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:6. <em>See<\/em> Shaaraim #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHARUHEN<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Shaaraim, a city in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:6. <em>See<\/em> Shaaraim #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHARUHEN Alternate name for Shaaraim, a city in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:6. See Shaaraim #2.","summary_en":"SHARUHEN Alternate name for Shaaraim, a city in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:6. See Shaaraim #2.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":1007,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ain","title_en":"Ain","content_ro":"<h3>AIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. City on the eastern border of Canaan, the Promised Land, northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11). The name means “well” or “spring.” It may be modern Khirbet ‘Ayyun.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the territory of Simeon. Many (but not all) scholars consider the site to be En-rimmon (Jos 19:7; cf. Neh 11:29), implying a copyist’s error that separated “Ain” from “Rimmon.” <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/li>\n<li>3. Place name in Joshua 21:16 resulting from another scribal mistake due to similarity of the words “Ain” and “Ashan” in Hebrew. The correct spelling is Ashan (cf. 1 Chr 6:59). <em>See<\/em> Ashan.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. City on the eastern border of Canaan, the Promised Land, northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11). The name means “well” or “spring.” It may be modern Khirbet ‘Ayyun.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the territory of Simeon. Many (but not all) scholars consider the site to be En-rimmon (Jos 19:7; cf. Neh 11:29), implying a copyist’s error that separated “Ain” from “Rimmon.” <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/li>\n<li>3. Place name in Joshua 21:16 resulting from another scribal mistake due to similarity of the words “Ain” and “Ashan” in Hebrew. The correct spelling is Ashan (cf. 1 Chr 6:59). <em>See<\/em> Ashan.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AIN 1. City on the eastern border of Canaan, the Promised Land, northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11). The name means “well” or “spring.” It may be modern Khirbet ‘Ayyun. 2. Town in the territory of Simeon. Many (but not all) scholars consider the site to be En-rimmon (Jos 19:7; cf. Neh 11:29), implying a copyist’s error that separated “Ain” from “Rimmon.” See En-rimmon. 3. Place name in Joshua 21:16 resulting from another scribal mistake due to similarity of the words “Ain” and “Ashan” ...","summary_en":"AIN 1. City on the eastern border of Canaan, the Promised Land, northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11). The name means “well” or “spring.” It may be modern Khirbet ‘Ayyun. 2. Town in the territory of Simeon. Many (but not all) scholars consider the site to be En-rimmon (Jos 19:7; cf. Neh 11:29), implying a copyist’s error that separated “Ain” from “Rimmon.” See En-rimmon. 3. Place name in Joshua 21:16 resulting from another scribal mistake due to similarity of the words “Ain” and “Ashan” ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2894,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashan","title_en":"Ashan","content_ro":"<h3>ASHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the southwestern Judean foothills slightly northwest of Beersheba. Ashan first belonged to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:42), then to Simeon’s (Jos 19:7), and finally to the Levites as a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:59). David roamed there with his outlaw band (1 Sm 30:30). The city of Ain mentioned in Joshua 21:16 probably refers to Ashan (this should not be confused with Ain in the northeast of Canaan, Nm 34:11). <em>See<\/em> Cities of Refuge.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the southwestern Judean foothills slightly northwest of Beersheba. Ashan first belonged to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:42), then to Simeon’s (Jos 19:7), and finally to the Levites as a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:59). David roamed there with his outlaw band (1 Sm 30:30). The city of Ain mentioned in Joshua 21:16 probably refers to Ashan (this should not be confused with Ain in the northeast of Canaan, Nm 34:11). <em>See<\/em> Cities of Refuge.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHAN Town in the southwestern Judean foothills slightly northwest of Beersheba. Ashan first belonged to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:42), then to Simeon’s (Jos 19:7), and finally to the Levites as a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:59). David roamed there with his outlaw band (1 Sm 30:30). The city of Ain mentioned in Joshua 21:16 probably refers to Ashan (this should not be confused with Ain in the northeast of Canaan, Nm 34:11). See Cities of Refuge.","summary_en":"ASHAN Town in the southwestern Judean foothills slightly northwest of Beersheba. Ashan first belonged to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:42), then to Simeon’s (Jos 19:7), and finally to the Levites as a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:59). David roamed there with his outlaw band (1 Sm 30:30). The city of Ain mentioned in Joshua 21:16 probably refers to Ashan (this should not be confused with Ain in the northeast of Canaan, Nm 34:11). See Cities of Refuge.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10834,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"En-Rimmon","title_en":"En-Rimmon","content_ro":"<h3>EN-RIMMON<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned first to Judah and then to Simeon (Jos 15:32; 19:7; 1 Chr 4:32). These verses refer to two places, Ain and Rimmon, but this was probably a scribal error for the one town, En-rimmon (see Jos 19:7). It was resettled after the exile (Neh 11:29), and is perhaps the Rimmon south of Jerusalem mentioned in Zechariah 14:10. En-rimmon is thought to be the modern Khirbet Umm er-Rumamin, nine miles (14.5 kilometers) north of Beersheba.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EN-RIMMON<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned first to Judah and then to Simeon (Jos 15:32; 19:7; 1 Chr 4:32). These verses refer to two places, Ain and Rimmon, but this was probably a scribal error for the one town, En-rimmon (see Jos 19:7). It was resettled after the exile (Neh 11:29), and is perhaps the Rimmon south of Jerusalem mentioned in Zechariah 14:10. En-rimmon is thought to be the modern Khirbet Umm er-Rumamin, nine miles (14.5 kilometers) north of Beersheba.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EN-RIMMON Town assigned first to Judah and then to Simeon (Jos 15:32; 19:7; 1 Chr 4:32). These verses refer to two places, Ain and Rimmon, but this was probably a scribal error for the one town, En-rimmon (see Jos 19:7). It was resettled after the exile (Neh 11:29), and is perhaps the Rimmon south of Jerusalem mentioned in Zechariah 14:10. En-rimmon is thought to be the modern Khirbet Umm er-Rumamin, nine miles (14.5 kilometers) north of Beersheba.","summary_en":"EN-RIMMON Town assigned first to Judah and then to Simeon (Jos 15:32; 19:7; 1 Chr 4:32). These verses refer to two places, Ain and Rimmon, but this was probably a scribal error for the one town, En-rimmon (see Jos 19:7). It was resettled after the exile (Neh 11:29), and is perhaps the Rimmon south of Jerusalem mentioned in Zechariah 14:10. En-rimmon is thought to be the modern Khirbet Umm er-Rumamin, nine miles (14.5 kilometers) north of Beersheba.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11247,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ether","title_en":"Ether","content_ro":"<h3>ETHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. A town in Judah in the Shephelah region (Jos 15:42). The modern town of Khirbet el-Ater is the probable site.<\/li>\n<li>2. A village in Simeon (Jos 19:7), paralleled in 1 Chronicles 4:32 by “Token.”<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ETHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. A town in Judah in the Shephelah region (Jos 15:42). The modern town of Khirbet el-Ater is the probable site.<\/li>\n<li>2. A village in Simeon (Jos 19:7), paralleled in 1 Chronicles 4:32 by “Token.”<\/li>","summary_ro":"ETHER 1. A town in Judah in the Shephelah region (Jos 15:42). The modern town of Khirbet el-Ater is the probable site. 2. A village in Simeon (Jos 19:7), paralleled in 1 Chronicles 4:32 by “Token.”","summary_en":"ETHER 1. A town in Judah in the Shephelah region (Jos 15:42). The modern town of Khirbet el-Ater is the probable site. 2. A village in Simeon (Jos 19:7), paralleled in 1 Chronicles 4:32 by “Token.”","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32677,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Remmon*","title_en":"Remmon*","content_ro":"<h3>REMMON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of En-rimmon, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:7. <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REMMON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of En-rimmon, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:7. <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REMMON* KJV form of En-rimmon, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:7. See En-rimmon.","summary_en":"REMMON* KJV form of En-rimmon, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:7. See En-rimmon.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":3377,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baalath-Beer","title_en":"Baalath-Beer","content_ro":"<h3>BAALATH-BEER<\/h3>\n<p>Place-name meaning “mistress” or “lady of the well.” Like the masculine counterpart Baal, Baalath often appears in a compound place-name. It seems to suggest that the Canaanite goddess Baalath, patron of Byblos, was associated with the particular place or well. Baalath-beer was the name of a town in Simeon’s tribe, also identified as Baal or Baalath (1 Chr 4:33), Ramah of the Negev (Jos 19:8), and Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27). It may have marked the southern limits of Simeon’s inheritance.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAALATH-BEER<\/h3>\n<p>Place-name meaning “mistress” or “lady of the well.” Like the masculine counterpart Baal, Baalath often appears in a compound place-name. It seems to suggest that the Canaanite goddess Baalath, patron of Byblos, was associated with the particular place or well. Baalath-beer was the name of a town in Simeon’s tribe, also identified as Baal or Baalath (1 Chr 4:33), Ramah of the Negev (Jos 19:8), and Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27). It may have marked the southern limits of Simeon’s inheritance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAALATH-BEER Place-name meaning “mistress” or “lady of the well.” Like the masculine counterpart Baal, Baalath often appears in a compound place-name. It seems to suggest that the Canaanite goddess Baalath, patron of Byblos, was associated with the particular place or well. Baalath-beer was the name of a town in Simeon’s tribe, also identified as Baal or Baalath (1 Chr 4:33), Ramah of the Negev (Jos 19:8), and Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27). It may have marked the southern limits of Simeon’...","summary_en":"BAALATH-BEER Place-name meaning “mistress” or “lady of the well.” Like the masculine counterpart Baal, Baalath often appears in a compound place-name. It seems to suggest that the Canaanite goddess Baalath, patron of Byblos, was associated with the particular place or well. Baalath-beer was the name of a town in Simeon’s tribe, also identified as Baal or Baalath (1 Chr 4:33), Ramah of the Negev (Jos 19:8), and Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27). It may have marked the southern limits of Simeon’...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32366,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32383,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah of the Negev, Ramah of the South*","title_en":"Ramah of the Negev, Ramah of the South*","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH OF THE NEGEV, RAMAH OF THE SOUTH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate names for Baalath-beer, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:8. <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH OF THE NEGEV, RAMAH OF THE SOUTH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate names for Baalath-beer, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:8. <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAMAH OF THE NEGEV, RAMAH OF THE SOUTH* Alternate names for Baalath-beer, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:8. See Baalath-beer.","summary_en":"RAMAH OF THE NEGEV, RAMAH OF THE SOUTH* Alternate names for Baalath-beer, a town in Simeon’s territory, in Joshua 19:8. See Baalath-beer.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32389,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the South*, Ramath","title_en":"of the South*, Ramath","content_ro":"<h3>RAMATH OF THE SOUTH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Ramah of the Negev, an alternate name of Baalath-beer, in Joshua 19:8. <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAMATH OF THE SOUTH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Ramah of the Negev, an alternate name of Baalath-beer, in Joshua 19:8. <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAMATH OF THE SOUTH* KJV rendering of Ramah of the Negev, an alternate name of Baalath-beer, in Joshua 19:8. See Baalath-beer.","summary_en":"RAMATH OF THE SOUTH* KJV rendering of Ramah of the Negev, an alternate name of Baalath-beer, in Joshua 19:8. See Baalath-beer.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":18059,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Issachar","title_en":"Tribe of Issachar","content_ro":"<h3>ISSACHAR, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just west of Mt Tabor; and Shunem is at the foot of the hill of Moreh. The northern border can be deduced from the southern boundaries of Zebulun and Naphtali (Jos 19:10-12, 33-34). All three areas, that of Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun, met at Mt Tabor. On the south side, there were some major towns not conquered in Joshua’s time (Jgs 1:27) that were taken from Issachar and given to Manasseh (Jos 17:11); these included important centers such as Beth-shan, Ibleam, and Tanaach.<\/p>\n<p>In the same territory, there were disturbances among the local tribes (recorded on a stele of Seti I at Beth-shan); the area is called “Mt Yarunta,” after Yarmuth (Jos 21:29, Jarmuth = Remeth). Issachar was located on the rich plateau stretching east of Mt Tabor and the hill of Moreh and north of the Beth-shan Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Issachar (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISSACHAR, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just west of Mt Tabor; and Shunem is at the foot of the hill of Moreh. The northern border can be deduced from the southern boundaries of Zebulun and Naphtali (Jos 19:10-12, 33-34). All three areas, that of Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun, met at Mt Tabor. On the south side, there were some major towns not conquered in Joshua’s time (Jgs 1:27) that were taken from Issachar and given to Manasseh (Jos 17:11); these included important centers such as Beth-shan, Ibleam, and Tanaach.<\/p>\n<p>In the same territory, there were disturbances among the local tribes (recorded on a stele of Seti I at Beth-shan); the area is called “Mt Yarunta,” after Yarmuth (Jos 21:29, Jarmuth = Remeth). Issachar was located on the rich plateau stretching east of Mt Tabor and the hill of Moreh and north of the Beth-shan Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Issachar (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISSACHAR, Tribe of Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just we...","summary_en":"ISSACHAR, Tribe of Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just we...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20847,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33958,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sarid","title_en":"Sarid","content_ro":"<h3>SARID<\/h3>\n<p>Town located in the region of Zebulun near its southern border, situated between Maralah to the west and Kisloth-tabor to the east (Jos 19:10, 12). Some suggest that this town is the same as Tell Shadud, a town near the valley of Jezreel.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SARID<\/h3>\n<p>Town located in the region of Zebulun near its southern border, situated between Maralah to the west and Kisloth-tabor to the east (Jos 19:10, 12). Some suggest that this town is the same as Tell Shadud, a town near the valley of Jezreel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SARID Town located in the region of Zebulun near its southern border, situated between Maralah to the west and Kisloth-tabor to the east (Jos 19:10, 12). Some suggest that this town is the same as Tell Shadud, a town near the valley of Jezreel.","summary_en":"SARID Town located in the region of Zebulun near its southern border, situated between Maralah to the west and Kisloth-tabor to the east (Jos 19:10, 12). Some suggest that this town is the same as Tell Shadud, a town near the valley of Jezreel.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39000,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Zebulun","title_en":"Tribe of Zebulun","content_ro":"<h3>ZEBULUN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley of Jezreel, but the boundary lines given in Joshua 19:10-16 are difficult to trace because only the tribe’s southeastern and eastern borders are indicated. The western border on the Mediterranean side is not clearly defined. In the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:18-19), Zebulun, along with Issachar, “shall draw out [lit. suck] the abundance of the sea,” which would seem to indicate that Zebulun would have access to the sea (Mediterranean) and therefore to the mercantile and maritime trade.<\/p>\n\n<p>The boundary details, however, do not bring Zebulun in touch geographically with the sea, in apparent contradiction to Genesis 49:13. But this reference may not imply actual contact with the Mediterranean. Zebulun’s position did enable it to profit by maritime trade because the great caravan route to the sea passed through Zebulunite territory. In addition, Zebulun’s “lot,” with its fruitful fields and valleys, ensured olive groves, vineyards, and splendid harvests. In 1 Chronicles 12:40 the tribe was able to provide rich provisions for David. Throughout the centuries the tribe maintained its identity.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, then, the tribe of Zebulun held a strong position among its tribal neighbors around Galilee and was settled more securely. In contrast to the tribes of Asher and Naphtali, who continued to live among the Canaanites (Jgs 1:32-33), the Canaanites constituted a minority in Zebulun. Throughout the period of the judges the tribe was very active. For example, the victorious army in the battle of Kishon was composed of men of Zebulun and Naphtali (4:6-10); in the Song of Deborah, Zebulun is praised as a people that puts its life in jeopardy to the point of death (5:18). According to Judges 6:35, the men of Zebulun took part in Gideon’s struggle with the Midianites on the plain of Jezreel and fought with outstanding valor. The judge Elon belonged to the tribe of Zebulun (12:11-12), and since Galilee was in the territory of Zebulun (Jos 19:15), Ibzan of Bethlehem was probably also a Zebulunite. Another indication of the strength and importance of Zebulun’s tribe within the united kingdom period is found in the mention of Zebulun’s fighting force as the largest of the western tribal armies that fought under King David (1 Chr 12:33).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there are two references to Zebulun. The first notes Zebulun as a region into which Jesus, the great light, made an appearance (Mt 4:13-15). The second mention of Zebulun appears in the list of the 12 tribes in Revelation 7:8 after Issachar.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Zebulun (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEBULUN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley of Jezreel, but the boundary lines given in Joshua 19:10-16 are difficult to trace because only the tribe’s southeastern and eastern borders are indicated. The western border on the Mediterranean side is not clearly defined. In the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:18-19), Zebulun, along with Issachar, “shall draw out [lit. suck] the abundance of the sea,” which would seem to indicate that Zebulun would have access to the sea (Mediterranean) and therefore to the mercantile and maritime trade.<\/p>\n\n<p>The boundary details, however, do not bring Zebulun in touch geographically with the sea, in apparent contradiction to Genesis 49:13. But this reference may not imply actual contact with the Mediterranean. Zebulun’s position did enable it to profit by maritime trade because the great caravan route to the sea passed through Zebulunite territory. In addition, Zebulun’s “lot,” with its fruitful fields and valleys, ensured olive groves, vineyards, and splendid harvests. In 1 Chronicles 12:40 the tribe was able to provide rich provisions for David. Throughout the centuries the tribe maintained its identity.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, then, the tribe of Zebulun held a strong position among its tribal neighbors around Galilee and was settled more securely. In contrast to the tribes of Asher and Naphtali, who continued to live among the Canaanites (Jgs 1:32-33), the Canaanites constituted a minority in Zebulun. Throughout the period of the judges the tribe was very active. For example, the victorious army in the battle of Kishon was composed of men of Zebulun and Naphtali (4:6-10); in the Song of Deborah, Zebulun is praised as a people that puts its life in jeopardy to the point of death (5:18). According to Judges 6:35, the men of Zebulun took part in Gideon’s struggle with the Midianites on the plain of Jezreel and fought with outstanding valor. The judge Elon belonged to the tribe of Zebulun (12:11-12), and since Galilee was in the territory of Zebulun (Jos 19:15), Ibzan of Bethlehem was probably also a Zebulunite. Another indication of the strength and importance of Zebulun’s tribe within the united kingdom period is found in the mention of Zebulun’s fighting force as the largest of the western tribal armies that fought under King David (1 Chr 12:33).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there are two references to Zebulun. The first notes Zebulun as a region into which Jesus, the great light, made an appearance (Mt 4:13-15). The second mention of Zebulun appears in the list of the 12 tribes in Revelation 7:8 after Issachar.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Zebulun (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEBULUN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27). The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley ...","summary_en":"ZEBULUN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27). The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45567,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","summary_en":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45568,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","summary_en":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45569,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","summary_en":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","summary_en":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73194,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","summary_en":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73195,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","summary_en":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","summary_en":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","summary_en":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","summary_en":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-48<\/strong> The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","summary_en":"19:10-48 The five small remaining tribes received land on the edges of the Israelite territory and had little national influence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-23<\/strong> The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","summary_en":"19:10-23 The lands given to the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar were strategically located; the major international trading route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through their territories. When Israel was strong, this position brought prosperity. However, when Israel was weak, these tribes were vulnerable both to the armies of Egypt and to the successive Mesopotamian powers that fought for control of the ancient Near East.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10-16<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Zebulun<\/em> received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","summary_en":"19:10-16 The tribe of Zebulun received land partly in the valley of Jezreel and partly in the hills of Lower Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":8444,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dabbesheth","title_en":"Dabbesheth","content_ro":"<h3>DABBESHETH<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for a camel’s hump (Is 30:6). The name also refers to a town (“camel’s hump hill”) situated on the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DABBESHETH<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for a camel’s hump (Is 30:6). The name also refers to a town (“camel’s hump hill”) situated on the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DABBESHETH Designation for a camel’s hump (Is 30:6). The name also refers to a town (“camel’s hump hill”) situated on the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:11).","summary_en":"DABBESHETH Designation for a camel’s hump (Is 30:6). The name also refers to a town (“camel’s hump hill”) situated on the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:11).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20426,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jokneam","title_en":"Jokneam","content_ro":"<h3>JOKNEAM<\/h3>\n<p>Royal Canaanite city belonging to Carmel (Jos 12:22), mentioned also by Thutmose III as “the Well of Q.” The border of Zebulun touched on the stream near Jokneam (19:11); the town became a Levitical city in Zebulun (21:34). Some think that Jokmeam of 1 Kings 4:12 should be amended to Jokneam, but this is not certain. Eusebius placed it six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Legio (beside Megiddo) on the way to Ptolemais. This is Tell Qaimun, at the mouth of Wadi Milh on the edge of the Jezreel Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOKNEAM<\/h3>\n<p>Royal Canaanite city belonging to Carmel (Jos 12:22), mentioned also by Thutmose III as “the Well of Q.” The border of Zebulun touched on the stream near Jokneam (19:11); the town became a Levitical city in Zebulun (21:34). Some think that Jokmeam of 1 Kings 4:12 should be amended to Jokneam, but this is not certain. Eusebius placed it six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Legio (beside Megiddo) on the way to Ptolemais. This is Tell Qaimun, at the mouth of Wadi Milh on the edge of the Jezreel Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOKNEAM Royal Canaanite city belonging to Carmel (Jos 12:22), mentioned also by Thutmose III as “the Well of Q.” The border of Zebulun touched on the stream near Jokneam (19:11); the town became a Levitical city in Zebulun (21:34). Some think that Jokmeam of 1 Kings 4:12 should be amended to Jokneam, but this is not certain. Eusebius placed it six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Legio (beside Megiddo) on the way to Ptolemais. This is Tell Qaimun, at the mouth of Wadi Milh on the edge of the Jezre...","summary_en":"JOKNEAM Royal Canaanite city belonging to Carmel (Jos 12:22), mentioned also by Thutmose III as “the Well of Q.” The border of Zebulun touched on the stream near Jokneam (19:11); the town became a Levitical city in Zebulun (21:34). Some think that Jokmeam of 1 Kings 4:12 should be amended to Jokneam, but this is not certain. Eusebius placed it six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Legio (beside Megiddo) on the way to Ptolemais. This is Tell Qaimun, at the mouth of Wadi Milh on the edge of the Jezre...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24300,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maralah","title_en":"Maralah","content_ro":"<h3>MARALAH<\/h3>\n<p>KJV and <span>nlt<\/span> rendering of Mareal, a site on Zebulun’s western border, in Joshua 19:11. <em>See<\/em> Mareal.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARALAH<\/h3>\n<p>KJV and <span>nlt<\/span> rendering of Mareal, a site on Zebulun’s western border, in Joshua 19:11. <em>See<\/em> Mareal.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARALAH KJV and nlt rendering of Mareal, a site on Zebulun’s western border, in Joshua 19:11. See Mareal.","summary_en":"MARALAH KJV and nlt rendering of Mareal, a site on Zebulun’s western border, in Joshua 19:11. See Mareal.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24309,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mareal*","title_en":"Mareal*","content_ro":"<h3>MAREAL*<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining part of the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance. It was positioned between Sarid and Dabbesheth (Jos 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span> “Maralah”).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAREAL*<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining part of the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance. It was positioned between Sarid and Dabbesheth (Jos 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span> “Maralah”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAREAL* Town defining part of the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance. It was positioned between Sarid and Dabbesheth (Jos 19:11, nlt “Maralah”).","summary_en":"MAREAL* Town defining part of the western border of the land allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance. It was positioned between Sarid and Dabbesheth (Jos 19:11, nlt “Maralah”).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":18512,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Japhia (Place)","title_en":"Japhia (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>JAPHIA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town described as part of the southern border of Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:12). It has been identified with modern Yafa, about two miles (3.2 kilometers) southwest of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAPHIA (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town described as part of the southern border of Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:12). It has been identified with modern Yafa, about two miles (3.2 kilometers) southwest of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAPHIA (Place) Town described as part of the southern border of Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:12). It has been identified with modern Yafa, about two miles (3.2 kilometers) southwest of Nazareth.","summary_en":"JAPHIA (Place) Town described as part of the southern border of Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:12). It has been identified with modern Yafa, about two miles (3.2 kilometers) southwest of Nazareth.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21653,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kesulloth","title_en":"Kesulloth","content_ro":"<h3>KESULLOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KESULLOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KESULLOTH Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.","summary_en":"KESULLOTH Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22206,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kisloth-Tabor","title_en":"Kisloth-Tabor","content_ro":"<h3>KISLOTH-TABOR<\/h3>\n<p>City mentioned in Joshua 19:12. <em>See<\/em> Kesulloth.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Tabor (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KISLOTH-TABOR<\/h3>\n<p>City mentioned in Joshua 19:12. <em>See<\/em> Kesulloth.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Tabor (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KISLOTH-TABOR City mentioned in Joshua 19:12. See Kesulloth. See also Tabor (Place).","summary_en":"KISLOTH-TABOR City mentioned in Joshua 19:12. See Kesulloth. See also Tabor (Place).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32278,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rabbith","title_en":"Rabbith","content_ro":"<h3>RABBITH<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. <em>See<\/em> Daberath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RABBITH<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. <em>See<\/em> Daberath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RABBITH Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. See Daberath.","summary_en":"RABBITH Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. See Daberath.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tabor (Place)","title_en":"Tabor (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>TABOR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:77 in a list of the towns of Zebulun. In a similar list in Joshua 19:12 the city is named Kisloth-Tabor; if the same city is meant, the Chronicler may have abbreviated the name here.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABOR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:77 in a list of the towns of Zebulun. In a similar list in Joshua 19:12 the city is named Kisloth-Tabor; if the same city is meant, the Chronicler may have abbreviated the name here.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABOR (Place) City mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:77 in a list of the towns of Zebulun. In a similar list in Joshua 19:12 the city is named Kisloth-Tabor; if the same city is meant, the Chronicler may have abbreviated the name here.","summary_en":"TABOR (Place) City mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:77 in a list of the towns of Zebulun. In a similar list in Joshua 19:12 the city is named Kisloth-Tabor; if the same city is meant, the Chronicler may have abbreviated the name here.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":11266,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eth-Kazin","title_en":"Eth-Kazin","content_ro":"<h3>ETH-KAZIN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the towns marking the eastern boundary of Zebulun’s tribe (Jos 19:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ETH-KAZIN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the towns marking the eastern boundary of Zebulun’s tribe (Jos 19:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ETH-KAZIN One of the towns marking the eastern boundary of Zebulun’s tribe (Jos 19:13).","summary_en":"ETH-KAZIN One of the towns marking the eastern boundary of Zebulun’s tribe (Jos 19:13).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13253,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gath-Hepher","title_en":"Gath-Hepher","content_ro":"<h3>GATH-HEPHER<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Galilee, in Zebulun’s territory, which was the birthplace of Jonah (Jos 19:13; 2 Kgs 14:25). Modern el-Meshad occupies the site of Gath-hepher.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GATH-HEPHER<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Galilee, in Zebulun’s territory, which was the birthplace of Jonah (Jos 19:13; 2 Kgs 14:25). Modern el-Meshad occupies the site of Gath-hepher.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GATH-HEPHER Town in Galilee, in Zebulun’s territory, which was the birthplace of Jonah (Jos 19:13; 2 Kgs 14:25). Modern el-Meshad occupies the site of Gath-hepher.","summary_en":"GATH-HEPHER Town in Galilee, in Zebulun’s territory, which was the birthplace of Jonah (Jos 19:13; 2 Kgs 14:25). Modern el-Meshad occupies the site of Gath-hepher.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13929,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gittah-Hepher*","title_en":"Gittah-Hepher*","content_ro":"<h3>GITTAH-HEPHER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the town Gath-hepher, in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Gath-hepher.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GITTAH-HEPHER*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the town Gath-hepher, in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Gath-hepher.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GITTAH-HEPHER* KJV form of the town Gath-hepher, in Joshua 19:13. See Gath-hepher.","summary_en":"GITTAH-HEPHER* KJV form of the town Gath-hepher, in Joshua 19:13. See Gath-hepher.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15385,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harmon*","title_en":"Harmon*","content_ro":"<h3>HARMON*<\/h3>\n<p>Place mentioned by the prophet Amos to which the inhabitants of Bashan would be exiled (Am 4:3, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Harmon occurs only once in the Bible, and there is no known place with such a name. There are problems with the text and numerous emendations have been proposed. Some Hebrew manuscripts render it as a common noun, meaning “palace” (<span>kjv<\/span>), rather than a proper name. The Septuagint renders it “the mountain of Rimmon,” perhaps referring to a hill east of Rimmon (see Jgs 20:45-47; cf. Jos 15:32; 19:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARMON*<\/h3>\n<p>Place mentioned by the prophet Amos to which the inhabitants of Bashan would be exiled (Am 4:3, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Harmon occurs only once in the Bible, and there is no known place with such a name. There are problems with the text and numerous emendations have been proposed. Some Hebrew manuscripts render it as a common noun, meaning “palace” (<span>kjv<\/span>), rather than a proper name. The Septuagint renders it “the mountain of Rimmon,” perhaps referring to a hill east of Rimmon (see Jgs 20:45-47; cf. Jos 15:32; 19:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARMON* Place mentioned by the prophet Amos to which the inhabitants of Bashan would be exiled (Am 4:3, nlt mg). Harmon occurs only once in the Bible, and there is no known place with such a name. There are problems with the text and numerous emendations have been proposed. Some Hebrew manuscripts render it as a common noun, meaning “palace” (kjv), rather than a proper name. The Septuagint renders it “the mountain of Rimmon,” perhaps referring to a hill east of Rimmon (see Jgs 20:45-47; cf. J...","summary_en":"HARMON* Place mentioned by the prophet Amos to which the inhabitants of Bashan would be exiled (Am 4:3, nlt mg). Harmon occurs only once in the Bible, and there is no known place with such a name. There are problems with the text and numerous emendations have been proposed. Some Hebrew manuscripts render it as a common noun, meaning “palace” (kjv), rather than a proper name. The Septuagint renders it “the mountain of Rimmon,” perhaps referring to a hill east of Rimmon (see Jgs 20:45-47; cf. J...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18105,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ittah-Kazin*","title_en":"Ittah-Kazin*","content_ro":"<h3>ITTAH-KAZIN*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the town Eth-kazin in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Eth-kazin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ITTAH-KAZIN*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the town Eth-kazin in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Eth-kazin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ITTAH-KAZIN* KJV form of the town Eth-kazin in Joshua 19:13. See Eth-kazin.","summary_en":"ITTAH-KAZIN* KJV form of the town Eth-kazin in Joshua 19:13. See Eth-kazin.","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27126,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Neah","title_en":"Neah","content_ro":"<h3>NEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEAH<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEAH Border town in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:13).","summary_en":"NEAH Border town in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:13).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32678,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Remmon-Methoar*","title_en":"Remmon-Methoar*","content_ro":"<h3>REMMON-METHOAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation for “Rimmon it ends toward Neah,” in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Rimmon (Place) #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REMMON-METHOAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation for “Rimmon it ends toward Neah,” in Joshua 19:13. <em>See<\/em> Rimmon (Place) #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REMMON-METHOAR* KJV translation for “Rimmon it ends toward Neah,” in Joshua 19:13. See Rimmon (Place) #2.","summary_en":"REMMON-METHOAR* KJV translation for “Rimmon it ends toward Neah,” in Joshua 19:13. See Rimmon (Place) #2.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33176,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rimmon (Place)","title_en":"Rimmon (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>RIMMON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Alternate name for En-rimmon, a town in southern Judah, in Joshua 15:32 and 1 Chronicles 4:32. <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:13); alternately called Dimnah in Joshua 21:35.<\/li>\n<li>3. Large cave about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) south of biblical Ephraim (modern Taiyiba), also called the Rock of Rimmon. Six hundred refugees from the city of Gibeah found shelter in the cave for four months (Jgs 20:45-47; 21:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RIMMON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Alternate name for En-rimmon, a town in southern Judah, in Joshua 15:32 and 1 Chronicles 4:32. <em>See<\/em> En-rimmon.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:13); alternately called Dimnah in Joshua 21:35.<\/li>\n<li>3. Large cave about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) south of biblical Ephraim (modern Taiyiba), also called the Rock of Rimmon. Six hundred refugees from the city of Gibeah found shelter in the cave for four months (Jgs 20:45-47; 21:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"RIMMON (Place) 1. Alternate name for En-rimmon, a town in southern Judah, in Joshua 15:32 and 1 Chronicles 4:32. See En-rimmon. 2. Town in the territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:13); alternately called Dimnah in Joshua 21:35. 3. Large cave about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) south of biblical Ephraim (modern Taiyiba), also called the Rock of Rimmon. Six hundred refugees from the city of Gibeah found shelter in the cave...","summary_en":"RIMMON (Place) 1. Alternate name for En-rimmon, a town in southern Judah, in Joshua 15:32 and 1 Chronicles 4:32. See En-rimmon. 2. Town in the territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:13); alternately called Dimnah in Joshua 21:35. 3. Large cave about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) south of biblical Ephraim (modern Taiyiba), also called the Rock of Rimmon. Six hundred refugees from the city of Gibeah found shelter in the cave...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45570,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","summary_en":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73196,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","summary_en":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","summary_en":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13<\/strong> <em>Gath-hepher<\/em> was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","summary_en":"19:13 Gath-hepher was the hometown of the prophet Jonah (2 Kgs 14:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":15294,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hannathon","title_en":"Hannathon","content_ro":"<h3>HANNATHON<\/h3>\n<p>Northern border town of Zebulun (Jos 19:14), mentioned in the Amarna tablets (c. 1370 <span>BC<\/span>) and in the annals of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Not yet precisely located, it has been identified with Kefr ‘Anau near Rimmon and with Tell el-Bedeiwiyah, north of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HANNATHON<\/h3>\n<p>Northern border town of Zebulun (Jos 19:14), mentioned in the Amarna tablets (c. 1370 <span>BC<\/span>) and in the annals of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Not yet precisely located, it has been identified with Kefr ‘Anau near Rimmon and with Tell el-Bedeiwiyah, north of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HANNATHON Northern border town of Zebulun (Jos 19:14), mentioned in the Amarna tablets (c. 1370 BC) and in the annals of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). Not yet precisely located, it has been identified with Kefr ‘Anau near Rimmon and with Tell el-Bedeiwiyah, north of Nazareth.","summary_en":"HANNATHON Northern border town of Zebulun (Jos 19:14), mentioned in the Amarna tablets (c. 1370 BC) and in the annals of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). Not yet precisely located, it has been identified with Kefr ‘Anau near Rimmon and with Tell el-Bedeiwiyah, north of Nazareth.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17669,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Iphtah-El","title_en":"Iphtah-El","content_ro":"<h3>IPHTAH-EL<\/h3>\n<p>Valley on Asher and Zebulun’s border (Jos 19:14, 27), possibly the modern Sahl el-Battof.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IPHTAH-EL<\/h3>\n<p>Valley on Asher and Zebulun’s border (Jos 19:14, 27), possibly the modern Sahl el-Battof.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IPHTAH-EL Valley on Asher and Zebulun’s border (Jos 19:14, 27), possibly the modern Sahl el-Battof.","summary_en":"IPHTAH-EL Valley on Asher and Zebulun’s border (Jos 19:14, 27), possibly the modern Sahl el-Battof.","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19880,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jiphthah-El*","title_en":"Jiphthah-El*","content_ro":"<h3>JIPHTHAH-EL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Iphtah-el, a valley on Zebulun’s border, in Joshua 19:14, 27. <em>See<\/em> Iphtah-el.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JIPHTHAH-EL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Iphtah-el, a valley on Zebulun’s border, in Joshua 19:14, 27. <em>See<\/em> Iphtah-el.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JIPHTHAH-EL* KJV rendering of Iphtah-el, a valley on Zebulun’s border, in Joshua 19:14, 27. See Iphtah-el.","summary_en":"JIPHTHAH-EL* KJV rendering of Iphtah-el, a valley on Zebulun’s border, in Joshua 19:14, 27. See Iphtah-el.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":4512,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethlehem","title_en":"Bethlehem","content_ro":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","summary_en":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17104,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Idalah","title_en":"Idalah","content_ro":"<h3>IDALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:15). It is generally identified with Khirbet el-Hawarah, northwest of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IDALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:15). It is generally identified with Khirbet el-Hawarah, northwest of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IDALAH Town assigned to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:15). It is generally identified with Khirbet el-Hawarah, northwest of Nazareth.","summary_en":"IDALAH Town assigned to Zebulun’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:15). It is generally identified with Khirbet el-Hawarah, northwest of Nazareth.","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21524,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kattath","title_en":"Kattath","content_ro":"<h3>KATTATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Zebulun (Jos 19:15), perhaps the same as the Kitron of Judges 1:30. <em>See<\/em> Kitron.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KATTATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Zebulun (Jos 19:15), perhaps the same as the Kitron of Judges 1:30. <em>See<\/em> Kitron.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KATTATH Town assigned to Zebulun (Jos 19:15), perhaps the same as the Kitron of Judges 1:30. See Kitron.","summary_en":"KATTATH Town assigned to Zebulun (Jos 19:15), perhaps the same as the Kitron of Judges 1:30. See Kitron.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22227,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kitron","title_en":"Kitron","content_ro":"<h3>KITRON<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to the tribe of Zebulun from which the Canaanite inhabitants could not be driven out (Jgs 1:30). It has been identified with Kattath (Jos 19:15), Tell el-Far, and Tell Qurdaneh. <em>See<\/em> Kattath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KITRON<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to the tribe of Zebulun from which the Canaanite inhabitants could not be driven out (Jgs 1:30). It has been identified with Kattath (Jos 19:15), Tell el-Far, and Tell Qurdaneh. <em>See<\/em> Kattath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KITRON City allotted to the tribe of Zebulun from which the Canaanite inhabitants could not be driven out (Jgs 1:30). It has been identified with Kattath (Jos 19:15), Tell el-Far, and Tell Qurdaneh. See Kattath.","summary_en":"KITRON City allotted to the tribe of Zebulun from which the Canaanite inhabitants could not be driven out (Jgs 1:30). It has been identified with Kattath (Jos 19:15), Tell el-Far, and Tell Qurdaneh. See Kattath.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26830,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahalal","title_en":"Nahalal","content_ro":"<h3>NAHALAL<\/h3>\n<p>City in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:15), given to the Levites for an inheritance (21:35). Zebulun’s tribe was unable to drive the Canaanites from the city, so they forced them into hard labor (Jgs 1:30, “Nahalol”). The exact location of the city is unknown. Some possible locations include Tell el-Beida, south of modern Nahalal, and Tell en-Nahl, north of the Kishon River and near the southern end of the plain of Acco, near modern Nahalal.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHALAL<\/h3>\n<p>City in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:15), given to the Levites for an inheritance (21:35). Zebulun’s tribe was unable to drive the Canaanites from the city, so they forced them into hard labor (Jgs 1:30, “Nahalol”). The exact location of the city is unknown. Some possible locations include Tell el-Beida, south of modern Nahalal, and Tell en-Nahl, north of the Kishon River and near the southern end of the plain of Acco, near modern Nahalal.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHALAL City in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:15), given to the Levites for an inheritance (21:35). Zebulun’s tribe was unable to drive the Canaanites from the city, so they forced them into hard labor (Jgs 1:30, “Nahalol”). The exact location of the city is unknown. Some possible locations include Tell el-Beida, south of modern Nahalal, and Tell en-Nahl, north of the Kishon River and near the southern end of the plain of Acco, near modern Nahalal. See also Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"NAHALAL City in Zebulun’s territory (Jos 19:15), given to the Levites for an inheritance (21:35). Zebulun’s tribe was unable to drive the Canaanites from the city, so they forced them into hard labor (Jgs 1:30, “Nahalol”). The exact location of the city is unknown. Some possible locations include Tell el-Beida, south of modern Nahalal, and Tell en-Nahl, north of the Kishon River and near the southern end of the plain of Acco, near modern Nahalal. See also Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26834,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahallal*","title_en":"Nahallal*","content_ro":"<h3>NAHALLAL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Nahalal, a city of Zebulun, in Joshua 19:15. <em>See<\/em> Nahalal.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHALLAL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Nahalal, a city of Zebulun, in Joshua 19:15. <em>See<\/em> Nahalal.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHALLAL* KJV spelling of Nahalal, a city of Zebulun, in Joshua 19:15. See Nahalal.","summary_en":"NAHALLAL* KJV spelling of Nahalal, a city of Zebulun, in Joshua 19:15. See Nahalal.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35142,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shimron (Place)","title_en":"Shimron (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>SHIMRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite town whose king joined the confederacy of King Jabin of Hazor in unsuccessful resistance to the Israelites under Joshua (Jos 11:1). Its site is uncertain, though it was in Zebulun’s territory (19:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHIMRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite town whose king joined the confederacy of King Jabin of Hazor in unsuccessful resistance to the Israelites under Joshua (Jos 11:1). Its site is uncertain, though it was in Zebulun’s territory (19:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHIMRON (Place) Canaanite town whose king joined the confederacy of King Jabin of Hazor in unsuccessful resistance to the Israelites under Joshua (Jos 11:1). Its site is uncertain, though it was in Zebulun’s territory (19:15-16).","summary_en":"SHIMRON (Place) Canaanite town whose king joined the confederacy of King Jabin of Hazor in unsuccessful resistance to the Israelites under Joshua (Jos 11:1). Its site is uncertain, though it was in Zebulun’s territory (19:15-16).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35146,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shimron-Meron","title_en":"Shimron-Meron","content_ro":"<h3>SHIMRON-MERON<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city destroyed by Joshua on his northern military campaign in Palestine. The king of Shimron-meron was one of 31 kings defeated by Joshua (Jos 12:20). This king was perhaps one of the northern kings summoned by Jabin, king of Hazor, to combine forces in an attempt to defeat Joshua (11:1). In all probability, Shimron-meron was one of the 12 cities included in the territory allotted to Zebulun for an inheritance (19:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHIMRON-MERON<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city destroyed by Joshua on his northern military campaign in Palestine. The king of Shimron-meron was one of 31 kings defeated by Joshua (Jos 12:20). This king was perhaps one of the northern kings summoned by Jabin, king of Hazor, to combine forces in an attempt to defeat Joshua (11:1). In all probability, Shimron-meron was one of the 12 cities included in the territory allotted to Zebulun for an inheritance (19:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHIMRON-MERON Canaanite city destroyed by Joshua on his northern military campaign in Palestine. The king of Shimron-meron was one of 31 kings defeated by Joshua (Jos 12:20). This king was perhaps one of the northern kings summoned by Jabin, king of Hazor, to combine forces in an attempt to defeat Joshua (11:1). In all probability, Shimron-meron was one of the 12 cities included in the territory allotted to Zebulun for an inheritance (19:15).","summary_en":"SHIMRON-MERON Canaanite city destroyed by Joshua on his northern military campaign in Palestine. The king of Shimron-meron was one of 31 kings defeated by Joshua (Jos 12:20). This king was perhaps one of the northern kings summoned by Jabin, king of Hazor, to combine forces in an attempt to defeat Joshua (11:1). In all probability, Shimron-meron was one of the 12 cities included in the territory allotted to Zebulun for an inheritance (19:15).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39009,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Zebulun","title_en":"Tribe of Zebulun","content_ro":"<h3>ZEBULUN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley of Jezreel, but the boundary lines given in Joshua 19:10-16 are difficult to trace because only the tribe’s southeastern and eastern borders are indicated. The western border on the Mediterranean side is not clearly defined. In the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:18-19), Zebulun, along with Issachar, “shall draw out [lit. suck] the abundance of the sea,” which would seem to indicate that Zebulun would have access to the sea (Mediterranean) and therefore to the mercantile and maritime trade.<\/p>\n\n<p>The boundary details, however, do not bring Zebulun in touch geographically with the sea, in apparent contradiction to Genesis 49:13. But this reference may not imply actual contact with the Mediterranean. Zebulun’s position did enable it to profit by maritime trade because the great caravan route to the sea passed through Zebulunite territory. In addition, Zebulun’s “lot,” with its fruitful fields and valleys, ensured olive groves, vineyards, and splendid harvests. In 1 Chronicles 12:40 the tribe was able to provide rich provisions for David. Throughout the centuries the tribe maintained its identity.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, then, the tribe of Zebulun held a strong position among its tribal neighbors around Galilee and was settled more securely. In contrast to the tribes of Asher and Naphtali, who continued to live among the Canaanites (Jgs 1:32-33), the Canaanites constituted a minority in Zebulun. Throughout the period of the judges the tribe was very active. For example, the victorious army in the battle of Kishon was composed of men of Zebulun and Naphtali (4:6-10); in the Song of Deborah, Zebulun is praised as a people that puts its life in jeopardy to the point of death (5:18). According to Judges 6:35, the men of Zebulun took part in Gideon’s struggle with the Midianites on the plain of Jezreel and fought with outstanding valor. The judge Elon belonged to the tribe of Zebulun (12:11-12), and since Galilee was in the territory of Zebulun (Jos 19:15), Ibzan of Bethlehem was probably also a Zebulunite. Another indication of the strength and importance of Zebulun’s tribe within the united kingdom period is found in the mention of Zebulun’s fighting force as the largest of the western tribal armies that fought under King David (1 Chr 12:33).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there are two references to Zebulun. The first notes Zebulun as a region into which Jesus, the great light, made an appearance (Mt 4:13-15). The second mention of Zebulun appears in the list of the 12 tribes in Revelation 7:8 after Issachar.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Zebulun (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEBULUN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley of Jezreel, but the boundary lines given in Joshua 19:10-16 are difficult to trace because only the tribe’s southeastern and eastern borders are indicated. The western border on the Mediterranean side is not clearly defined. In the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:18-19), Zebulun, along with Issachar, “shall draw out [lit. suck] the abundance of the sea,” which would seem to indicate that Zebulun would have access to the sea (Mediterranean) and therefore to the mercantile and maritime trade.<\/p>\n\n<p>The boundary details, however, do not bring Zebulun in touch geographically with the sea, in apparent contradiction to Genesis 49:13. But this reference may not imply actual contact with the Mediterranean. Zebulun’s position did enable it to profit by maritime trade because the great caravan route to the sea passed through Zebulunite territory. In addition, Zebulun’s “lot,” with its fruitful fields and valleys, ensured olive groves, vineyards, and splendid harvests. In 1 Chronicles 12:40 the tribe was able to provide rich provisions for David. Throughout the centuries the tribe maintained its identity.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, then, the tribe of Zebulun held a strong position among its tribal neighbors around Galilee and was settled more securely. In contrast to the tribes of Asher and Naphtali, who continued to live among the Canaanites (Jgs 1:32-33), the Canaanites constituted a minority in Zebulun. Throughout the period of the judges the tribe was very active. For example, the victorious army in the battle of Kishon was composed of men of Zebulun and Naphtali (4:6-10); in the Song of Deborah, Zebulun is praised as a people that puts its life in jeopardy to the point of death (5:18). According to Judges 6:35, the men of Zebulun took part in Gideon’s struggle with the Midianites on the plain of Jezreel and fought with outstanding valor. The judge Elon belonged to the tribe of Zebulun (12:11-12), and since Galilee was in the territory of Zebulun (Jos 19:15), Ibzan of Bethlehem was probably also a Zebulunite. Another indication of the strength and importance of Zebulun’s tribe within the united kingdom period is found in the mention of Zebulun’s fighting force as the largest of the western tribal armies that fought under King David (1 Chr 12:33).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there are two references to Zebulun. The first notes Zebulun as a region into which Jesus, the great light, made an appearance (Mt 4:13-15). The second mention of Zebulun appears in the list of the 12 tribes in Revelation 7:8 after Issachar.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Zebulun (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEBULUN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27). The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley ...","summary_en":"ZEBULUN, Tribe of Tribe descended from Zebulun, the tenth son of Jacob and the sixth borne to him by Leah (Gn 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (Gn 46:14; Nm 26:27). At the census taken on the plains of Moab, the number of men in the tribe over 20 years of age and fit for military service was 60,500 (Nm 26:26-27). The territory allotted to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan and included the valley ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45571,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","summary_en":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73197,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","summary_en":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100823,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","summary_en":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128449,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:15","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:15<\/strong> This <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than <em>twelve towns<\/em> are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","summary_en":"19:15 This Bethlehem was not the birthplace of David and Jesus in Judah. • More than twelve towns are named; some apparently did not belong to Zebulun but were on its borders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":45572,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:16","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","summary_en":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73198,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:16","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","summary_en":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100824,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:16","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","summary_en":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128450,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:16","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:16<\/strong> Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, <em>Zebulun<\/em> was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","summary_en":"19:16 Both by number of towns and by size of its territory, Zebulun was smallest of all the tribes. However, the New Testament village of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up, was in the tribal territory of Zebulun (Matt 2:19-23; 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":18056,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Issachar (Person)","title_en":"Issachar (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ISSACHAR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jacob’s ninth son, the fifth by his wife Leah (Gn 30:17-18); his name perhaps means “reward.” Jacob, in his final message to his 12 sons says, “Issachar is a strong donkey, lying down between the sheepfolds” (49:14, <span>nasb<\/span>); the picture suggested is a loaded donkey who refuses to move his burden, a lazy man who is unwilling to do his share of the work. Little is known about Issachar except what he did along with the other sons of Israel. He had four sons (46:13), who headed clans in the tribe (1 Chr 7:1-5). His family went with Jacob to Egypt, where they died (although Issachar’s remains were subsequently moved to Shechem with the other 12 patriarchs—Acts 7:16).<\/li>\n<p>The descendants of Issachar numbered 54,400 at the first census (Nm 1:29), increased to 64,300 at the second (26:25), and to 87,000 during David’s reign (1 Chr 7:5). Issachar was the main tribe involved in the fighting led by Deborah, herself a member of the tribe (Jgs 5:15). During the time of David, there were men of the tribe of Issachar who had understanding of what Israel ought to do in warfare (1 Chr 12:32). These men supported David as king to replace Saul.<\/p>\n<p>Issachar was assigned the fourth lot of land after the ark was taken to Shiloh (Jos 19:17). This included the cities of Jezreel, Shunem, and En-gannim, and it lay between the mountains of Gilboa and Tabor. Their allotment was bordered on the south and west by the tribe of Manasseh, on the north by Zebulun and Naphtali, and on the east by the river Jordan. This territory was largely a fertile plain and was often threatened by the Canaanites nearby as well as by foreign invaders.<\/p>\n<li>2. Obed-edom’s son, who was a Levite gatekeeper during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISSACHAR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jacob’s ninth son, the fifth by his wife Leah (Gn 30:17-18); his name perhaps means “reward.” Jacob, in his final message to his 12 sons says, “Issachar is a strong donkey, lying down between the sheepfolds” (49:14, <span>nasb<\/span>); the picture suggested is a loaded donkey who refuses to move his burden, a lazy man who is unwilling to do his share of the work. Little is known about Issachar except what he did along with the other sons of Israel. He had four sons (46:13), who headed clans in the tribe (1 Chr 7:1-5). His family went with Jacob to Egypt, where they died (although Issachar’s remains were subsequently moved to Shechem with the other 12 patriarchs—Acts 7:16).<\/li>\n<p>The descendants of Issachar numbered 54,400 at the first census (Nm 1:29), increased to 64,300 at the second (26:25), and to 87,000 during David’s reign (1 Chr 7:5). Issachar was the main tribe involved in the fighting led by Deborah, herself a member of the tribe (Jgs 5:15). During the time of David, there were men of the tribe of Issachar who had understanding of what Israel ought to do in warfare (1 Chr 12:32). These men supported David as king to replace Saul.<\/p>\n<p>Issachar was assigned the fourth lot of land after the ark was taken to Shiloh (Jos 19:17). This included the cities of Jezreel, Shunem, and En-gannim, and it lay between the mountains of Gilboa and Tabor. Their allotment was bordered on the south and west by the tribe of Manasseh, on the north by Zebulun and Naphtali, and on the east by the river Jordan. This territory was largely a fertile plain and was often threatened by the Canaanites nearby as well as by foreign invaders.<\/p>\n<li>2. Obed-edom’s son, who was a Levite gatekeeper during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISSACHAR (Person) 1. Jacob’s ninth son, the fifth by his wife Leah (Gn 30:17-18); his name perhaps means “reward.” Jacob, in his final message to his 12 sons says, “Issachar is a strong donkey, lying down between the sheepfolds” (49:14, nasb); the picture suggested is a loaded donkey who refuses to move his burden, a lazy man who is unwilling to do his share of the work. Little is known about Issachar except what he did along with the other sons of Israel. He had four sons (46:13), who headed...","summary_en":"ISSACHAR (Person) 1. Jacob’s ninth son, the fifth by his wife Leah (Gn 30:17-18); his name perhaps means “reward.” Jacob, in his final message to his 12 sons says, “Issachar is a strong donkey, lying down between the sheepfolds” (49:14, nasb); the picture suggested is a loaded donkey who refuses to move his burden, a lazy man who is unwilling to do his share of the work. Little is known about Issachar except what he did along with the other sons of Israel. He had four sons (46:13), who headed...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18058,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Issachar","title_en":"Tribe of Issachar","content_ro":"<h3>ISSACHAR, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just west of Mt Tabor; and Shunem is at the foot of the hill of Moreh. The northern border can be deduced from the southern boundaries of Zebulun and Naphtali (Jos 19:10-12, 33-34). All three areas, that of Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun, met at Mt Tabor. On the south side, there were some major towns not conquered in Joshua’s time (Jgs 1:27) that were taken from Issachar and given to Manasseh (Jos 17:11); these included important centers such as Beth-shan, Ibleam, and Tanaach.<\/p>\n<p>In the same territory, there were disturbances among the local tribes (recorded on a stele of Seti I at Beth-shan); the area is called “Mt Yarunta,” after Yarmuth (Jos 21:29, Jarmuth = Remeth). Issachar was located on the rich plateau stretching east of Mt Tabor and the hill of Moreh and north of the Beth-shan Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Issachar (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISSACHAR, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just west of Mt Tabor; and Shunem is at the foot of the hill of Moreh. The northern border can be deduced from the southern boundaries of Zebulun and Naphtali (Jos 19:10-12, 33-34). All three areas, that of Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun, met at Mt Tabor. On the south side, there were some major towns not conquered in Joshua’s time (Jgs 1:27) that were taken from Issachar and given to Manasseh (Jos 17:11); these included important centers such as Beth-shan, Ibleam, and Tanaach.<\/p>\n<p>In the same territory, there were disturbances among the local tribes (recorded on a stele of Seti I at Beth-shan); the area is called “Mt Yarunta,” after Yarmuth (Jos 21:29, Jarmuth = Remeth). Issachar was located on the rich plateau stretching east of Mt Tabor and the hill of Moreh and north of the Beth-shan Valley.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Issachar (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISSACHAR, Tribe of Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just we...","summary_en":"ISSACHAR, Tribe of Tribal inheritance of Issachar. The territory is defined in Joshua 19:17-23; detailed boundary descriptions are not included. On the east its boundary ends at the Jordan. The area can be located by the list of towns encompassed by the inheritance of which Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim have identifications of varying degrees of certainty. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just we...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45573,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","summary_en":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73199,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","summary_en":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100825,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","summary_en":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128451,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-23<\/strong> The land given to <em>the tribe of Issachar<\/em> included much of the fertile <em>Jezreel<\/em> Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","summary_en":"19:17-23 The land given to the tribe of Issachar included much of the fertile Jezreel Valley. During Old Testament times, this valley was largely a swamp surrounded by prosperous and important cities. This area was a center of Canaanite strength, so this small tribe had trouble gaining a foothold at first.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":19845,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jezreel (Place)","title_en":"Jezreel (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>JEZREEL (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town originally founded by the tribe of Issachar to the south of Shunem, a site that was abandoned in the el-Amarna period by earlier settlers (Jos 19:18). The city became associated with a number of important events in the history of Israel.<\/li>\n<p>It probably gained some of its importance from the decline of the ancient town of Beth-shan during the Iron Age. Jezreel became the center of an important district in Saul’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:9), and a nearby spring served as the rallying point for Saul’s army before they met the Philistines in the battle of Mt Gilboa (1 Sm 29:1). After Saul’s death, the town was, for a short time, part of Ishbosheth’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:8-11). In Solomon’s day it was assigned to the tenth district of Issachar and was excluded from the main Jezreel Valley. It was administered by Jehoshaphat, son of Paruah (1 Kgs 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) it was chosen as the site of the king’s winter capital, and the four kings of his dynasty down to Joram (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>) all resided there. It was to this place that Joram retired to recover from wounds received in battle (2 Kgs 8:29). Jezreel was a walled city with a gate and a tower from which the countryside could be surveyed (9:17), and it was administered by a council of elders and nobles (10:1). The royal palace was adjacent to the vineyard owned by Naboth, the Jezreelite, which was seized illegally by King Ahab (1 Kgs 21). For this dastardly deed the dynasty of Ahab received severe retribution. Jezebel, Ahab’s Phoenician wife, was thrown to the dogs through an upper window at the time of Jehu’s usurpation of the throne. King Joram, wounded in battle, was slain by Jehu along with his courtiers and his body cast into the field of Naboth (2 Kgs 9:24-26). The remnant of Ahab’s household were killed at the same time (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>After the downfall of Omri’s dynasty, the town declined in importance, although it is mentioned as a village by a number of writers in the Christian era. Eusebius (<span>AD<\/span> 260–340), for example, refers to it as a village between Scythopolis (Beth-shan) and Legio (<em>Onomasticon<\/em> 108:13ff.). The Crusaders called it “le Petit Gerim” to distinguish it from “le Grand Gerim.”<\/p>\n<p>Today Jezreel is identified with Zer’in, the site of an Israeli kibbutz about 55 miles (88.5 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. Archaeological remains found in the area point to an occupation in the Iron Age and the Roman period.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in the mountains of Judah (Jos 15:56). It was the hometown of Ahinoam, one of David’s wives (1 Sm 25:43), but nothing is known about the site today.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEZREEL (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town originally founded by the tribe of Issachar to the south of Shunem, a site that was abandoned in the el-Amarna period by earlier settlers (Jos 19:18). The city became associated with a number of important events in the history of Israel.<\/li>\n<p>It probably gained some of its importance from the decline of the ancient town of Beth-shan during the Iron Age. Jezreel became the center of an important district in Saul’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:9), and a nearby spring served as the rallying point for Saul’s army before they met the Philistines in the battle of Mt Gilboa (1 Sm 29:1). After Saul’s death, the town was, for a short time, part of Ishbosheth’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:8-11). In Solomon’s day it was assigned to the tenth district of Issachar and was excluded from the main Jezreel Valley. It was administered by Jehoshaphat, son of Paruah (1 Kgs 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) it was chosen as the site of the king’s winter capital, and the four kings of his dynasty down to Joram (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>) all resided there. It was to this place that Joram retired to recover from wounds received in battle (2 Kgs 8:29). Jezreel was a walled city with a gate and a tower from which the countryside could be surveyed (9:17), and it was administered by a council of elders and nobles (10:1). The royal palace was adjacent to the vineyard owned by Naboth, the Jezreelite, which was seized illegally by King Ahab (1 Kgs 21). For this dastardly deed the dynasty of Ahab received severe retribution. Jezebel, Ahab’s Phoenician wife, was thrown to the dogs through an upper window at the time of Jehu’s usurpation of the throne. King Joram, wounded in battle, was slain by Jehu along with his courtiers and his body cast into the field of Naboth (2 Kgs 9:24-26). The remnant of Ahab’s household were killed at the same time (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>After the downfall of Omri’s dynasty, the town declined in importance, although it is mentioned as a village by a number of writers in the Christian era. Eusebius (<span>AD<\/span> 260–340), for example, refers to it as a village between Scythopolis (Beth-shan) and Legio (<em>Onomasticon<\/em> 108:13ff.). The Crusaders called it “le Petit Gerim” to distinguish it from “le Grand Gerim.”<\/p>\n<p>Today Jezreel is identified with Zer’in, the site of an Israeli kibbutz about 55 miles (88.5 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. Archaeological remains found in the area point to an occupation in the Iron Age and the Roman period.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in the mountains of Judah (Jos 15:56). It was the hometown of Ahinoam, one of David’s wives (1 Sm 25:43), but nothing is known about the site today.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEZREEL (Place) 1. Town originally founded by the tribe of Issachar to the south of Shunem, a site that was abandoned in the el-Amarna period by earlier settlers (Jos 19:18). The city became associated with a number of important events in the history of Israel. It probably gained some of its importance from the decline of the ancient town of Beth-shan during the Iron Age. Jezreel became the center of an important district in Saul’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:9), and a nearby spring served as the rallyin...","summary_en":"JEZREEL (Place) 1. Town originally founded by the tribe of Issachar to the south of Shunem, a site that was abandoned in the el-Amarna period by earlier settlers (Jos 19:18). The city became associated with a number of important events in the history of Israel. It probably gained some of its importance from the decline of the ancient town of Beth-shan during the Iron Age. Jezreel became the center of an important district in Saul’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:9), and a nearby spring served as the rallyin...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kesulloth","title_en":"Kesulloth","content_ro":"<h3>KESULLOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KESULLOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KESULLOTH Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.","summary_en":"KESULLOTH Town in Issachar (Jos 19:18); also called Kisloth-tabor in Joshua 19:12. It is probably to be identified with the modern Iksal, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Nazareth.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35235,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shunem","title_en":"Shunem","content_ro":"<h3>SHUNEM<\/h3>\n<p>Village of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:18) strategically located in the Jezreel Valley. Shunem (modern Sulem) is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jezreel, situated on the outer hills of Mt Moreh. Both Shunem and Jezreel guard the eastern approach to the Jezreel Valley from Beth-shan through the valley of Harod. This strategic location explains the appearance of Shunem on city lists of various foreign invaders: the lists of Thutmose III (15th century <span>BC<\/span>); the Amarna Letters (15th century <span>BC<\/span>), which mention it in conjunction with Megiddo; and the tenth-century <span>BC<\/span> record at Karnak of the Egyptian Shishak, who listed Shunem’s importance.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines used Shunem to launch their siege of the Israelite forces at Jezreel (1 Sm 28–31). Because Shunem was on a well-used route, Elijah frequented the town and even resided there (2 Kgs 4:8). Later, Elijah raised a woman’s son from death (vv 32-37). During the latter years of the reign of David, a beautiful woman from Shunem named Abishag was summoned to care for the ailing king (1 Kgs 1:3, 15). After David’s death, Abishag appears in the story of the rivalry between Adonijah (David’s eldest son) and Solomon. Adonijah requests Abishag for his own, once Solomon gains the throne, but the king views his brother’s interest as presumption—and a possible attempt at his throne (2:13-25).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abishag; Shulammite.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHUNEM<\/h3>\n<p>Village of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:18) strategically located in the Jezreel Valley. Shunem (modern Sulem) is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jezreel, situated on the outer hills of Mt Moreh. Both Shunem and Jezreel guard the eastern approach to the Jezreel Valley from Beth-shan through the valley of Harod. This strategic location explains the appearance of Shunem on city lists of various foreign invaders: the lists of Thutmose III (15th century <span>BC<\/span>); the Amarna Letters (15th century <span>BC<\/span>), which mention it in conjunction with Megiddo; and the tenth-century <span>BC<\/span> record at Karnak of the Egyptian Shishak, who listed Shunem’s importance.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines used Shunem to launch their siege of the Israelite forces at Jezreel (1 Sm 28–31). Because Shunem was on a well-used route, Elijah frequented the town and even resided there (2 Kgs 4:8). Later, Elijah raised a woman’s son from death (vv 32-37). During the latter years of the reign of David, a beautiful woman from Shunem named Abishag was summoned to care for the ailing king (1 Kgs 1:3, 15). After David’s death, Abishag appears in the story of the rivalry between Adonijah (David’s eldest son) and Solomon. Adonijah requests Abishag for his own, once Solomon gains the throne, but the king views his brother’s interest as presumption—and a possible attempt at his throne (2:13-25).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abishag; Shulammite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHUNEM Village of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:18) strategically located in the Jezreel Valley. Shunem (modern Sulem) is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jezreel, situated on the outer hills of Mt Moreh. Both Shunem and Jezreel guard the eastern approach to the Jezreel Valley from Beth-shan through the valley of Harod. This strategic location explains the appearance of Shunem on city lists of various foreign invaders: the lists of Thutmose III (15th century BC); the Amarna L...","summary_en":"SHUNEM Village of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:18) strategically located in the Jezreel Valley. Shunem (modern Sulem) is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jezreel, situated on the outer hills of Mt Moreh. Both Shunem and Jezreel guard the eastern approach to the Jezreel Valley from Beth-shan through the valley of Harod. This strategic location explains the appearance of Shunem on city lists of various foreign invaders: the lists of Thutmose III (15th century BC); the Amarna L...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":1535,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anaharath","title_en":"Anaharath","content_ro":"<h3>ANAHARATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the valley of Jezreel allotted to Issachar’s tribe when the land was divided by Joshua (Jos 19:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANAHARATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in the valley of Jezreel allotted to Issachar’s tribe when the land was divided by Joshua (Jos 19:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANAHARATH Town in the valley of Jezreel allotted to Issachar’s tribe when the land was divided by Joshua (Jos 19:19).","summary_en":"ANAHARATH Town in the valley of Jezreel allotted to Issachar’s tribe when the land was divided by Joshua (Jos 19:19).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15310,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hapharaim","title_en":"Hapharaim","content_ro":"<h3>HAPHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Town included in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:19). Some scholars have identified it with et-Taiyibeh, about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Beth-shan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAPHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Town included in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:19). Some scholars have identified it with et-Taiyibeh, about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Beth-shan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAPHARAIM Town included in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:19). Some scholars have identified it with et-Taiyibeh, about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Beth-shan.","summary_en":"HAPHARAIM Town included in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:19). Some scholars have identified it with et-Taiyibeh, about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Beth-shan.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35156,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shion","title_en":"Shion","content_ro":"<h3>SHION<\/h3>\n<p>One of 16 cities in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hapharaim and Anaharath (Jos 19:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHION<\/h3>\n<p>One of 16 cities in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hapharaim and Anaharath (Jos 19:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHION One of 16 cities in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hapharaim and Anaharath (Jos 19:19).","summary_en":"SHION One of 16 cities in the territory allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hapharaim and Anaharath (Jos 19:19).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":108,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abez*","title_en":"Abez*","content_ro":"<h3>ABEZ*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Ebez, a place in Issachar’s territory, in Joshua 19:20. <em>See<\/em> Ebez.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABEZ*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Ebez, a place in Issachar’s territory, in Joshua 19:20. <em>See<\/em> Ebez.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABEZ* KJV form of Ebez, a place in Issachar’s territory, in Joshua 19:20. See Ebez.","summary_en":"ABEZ* KJV form of Ebez, a place in Issachar’s territory, in Joshua 19:20. See Ebez.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10003,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ebez","title_en":"Ebez","content_ro":"<h3>EBEZ<\/h3>\n<p>City in the plain of Esdraelon, allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EBEZ<\/h3>\n<p>City in the plain of Esdraelon, allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EBEZ City in the plain of Esdraelon, allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:20).","summary_en":"EBEZ City in the plain of Esdraelon, allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:20).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22198,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kishion","title_en":"Kishion","content_ro":"<h3>KISHION<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:20) and given to the Gershonite Levites (Jos 21:28). <em>See<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KISHION<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:20) and given to the Gershonite Levites (Jos 21:28). <em>See<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KISHION City allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:20) and given to the Gershonite Levites (Jos 21:28). See Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"KISHION City allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:20) and given to the Gershonite Levites (Jos 21:28). See Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32277,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rabbith","title_en":"Rabbith","content_ro":"<h3>RABBITH<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. <em>See<\/em> Daberath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RABBITH<\/h3>\n<p>Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. <em>See<\/em> Daberath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RABBITH Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. See Daberath.","summary_en":"RABBITH Town defining the border of Issachar (Jos 19:20) and perhaps identifiable with the Levitical town called Daberath (Jos 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr 6:72). If so, its site is near Mt Tabor at modern Deburiyeh. See Daberath.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":4529,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Pazzez","title_en":"Beth-Pazzez","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-PAZZEZ<\/h3>\n<p>City given to Issachar’s tribe at the partitioning of the Promised Land, apparently near Mt Tabor (Jos 19:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-PAZZEZ<\/h3>\n<p>City given to Issachar’s tribe at the partitioning of the Promised Land, apparently near Mt Tabor (Jos 19:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-PAZZEZ City given to Issachar’s tribe at the partitioning of the Promised Land, apparently near Mt Tabor (Jos 19:21).","summary_en":"BETH-PAZZEZ City given to Issachar’s tribe at the partitioning of the Promised Land, apparently near Mt Tabor (Jos 19:21).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10812,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"En-Gannim","title_en":"En-Gannim","content_ro":"<h3>EN-GANNIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Village in the lowland of Judah near Beth-shemesh (Jos 15:34). Some identify it with the modern Beit Jemal, but this is doubtful.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town on the boundary of Issachar (Jos 19:21). It was a Levitical city of the Gershonites (21:29) and the Anem of 1 Chronicles 6:73, which may be a copyist’s mistake. It seems to be the Ginaea of Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.6.1). Its site is the modern Jenin, a village on the southern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, five miles (8.1 kilometers) northeast of Dothan and about 68 miles (109.4 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EN-GANNIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Village in the lowland of Judah near Beth-shemesh (Jos 15:34). Some identify it with the modern Beit Jemal, but this is doubtful.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town on the boundary of Issachar (Jos 19:21). It was a Levitical city of the Gershonites (21:29) and the Anem of 1 Chronicles 6:73, which may be a copyist’s mistake. It seems to be the Ginaea of Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.6.1). Its site is the modern Jenin, a village on the southern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, five miles (8.1 kilometers) northeast of Dothan and about 68 miles (109.4 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EN-GANNIM 1. Village in the lowland of Judah near Beth-shemesh (Jos 15:34). Some identify it with the modern Beit Jemal, but this is doubtful. 2. Town on the boundary of Issachar (Jos 19:21). It was a Levitical city of the Gershonites (21:29) and the Anem of 1 Chronicles 6:73, which may be a copyist’s mistake. It seems to be the Ginaea of Josephus (Antiquities 20.6.1). Its site is the modern Jenin, a village on the southern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, five miles (8.1 kilometers) northeast...","summary_en":"EN-GANNIM 1. Village in the lowland of Judah near Beth-shemesh (Jos 15:34). Some identify it with the modern Beit Jemal, but this is doubtful. 2. Town on the boundary of Issachar (Jos 19:21). It was a Levitical city of the Gershonites (21:29) and the Anem of 1 Chronicles 6:73, which may be a copyist’s mistake. It seems to be the Ginaea of Josephus (Antiquities 20.6.1). Its site is the modern Jenin, a village on the southern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, five miles (8.1 kilometers) northeast...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10821,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"En-Haddah","title_en":"En-Haddah","content_ro":"<h3>EN-HADDAH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between En-gannim and Beth-pazzez (Jos 19:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EN-HADDAH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between En-gannim and Beth-pazzez (Jos 19:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EN-HADDAH City allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between En-gannim and Beth-pazzez (Jos 19:21).","summary_en":"EN-HADDAH City allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between En-gannim and Beth-pazzez (Jos 19:21).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18532,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jarmuth","title_en":"Jarmuth","content_ro":"<h3>JARMUTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified city in the northern part of the Shephelah given to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:35). It was one of five Amorite cities that banded together to attack Gibeon after they had made peace with Joshua and Israel (10:3-5). Jarmuth was reinhabited after the exile by people of Judah (Neh 11:29), and possibly maintained a population throughout the Dispersion. It is identified with Khirbet Yarmuk, 18 miles (29 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Archaeological evidence suggests that the area of the Bronze Age city was six to eight acres (2.4 to 3.2 hectares) and had a population of about 1,500 to 2,000 people. It is mentioned in the Amarna letters as receiving aid from Lachish.<\/li>\n<li>2. One of four cities of Issachar given to the Levites for their inheritance (Jos 21:28-29). It is apparently identifiable with Ramoth in 1 Chronicles 6:73 and Remeth in Joshua 19:21. A stele of Pharaoh Seti I was found at Beth-shan, referring to the whole area as Mt Jarmuth.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JARMUTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified city in the northern part of the Shephelah given to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:35). It was one of five Amorite cities that banded together to attack Gibeon after they had made peace with Joshua and Israel (10:3-5). Jarmuth was reinhabited after the exile by people of Judah (Neh 11:29), and possibly maintained a population throughout the Dispersion. It is identified with Khirbet Yarmuk, 18 miles (29 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Archaeological evidence suggests that the area of the Bronze Age city was six to eight acres (2.4 to 3.2 hectares) and had a population of about 1,500 to 2,000 people. It is mentioned in the Amarna letters as receiving aid from Lachish.<\/li>\n<li>2. One of four cities of Issachar given to the Levites for their inheritance (Jos 21:28-29). It is apparently identifiable with Ramoth in 1 Chronicles 6:73 and Remeth in Joshua 19:21. A stele of Pharaoh Seti I was found at Beth-shan, referring to the whole area as Mt Jarmuth.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JARMUTH 1. Fortified city in the northern part of the Shephelah given to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:35). It was one of five Amorite cities that banded together to attack Gibeon after they had made peace with Joshua and Israel (10:3-5). Jarmuth was reinhabited after the exile by people of Judah (Neh 11:29), and possibly maintained a population throughout the Dispersion. It is identified with Khirbet Yarmuk, 18 miles (29 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Archaeological evidence ...","summary_en":"JARMUTH 1. Fortified city in the northern part of the Shephelah given to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:35). It was one of five Amorite cities that banded together to attack Gibeon after they had made peace with Joshua and Israel (10:3-5). Jarmuth was reinhabited after the exile by people of Judah (Neh 11:29), and possibly maintained a population throughout the Dispersion. It is identified with Khirbet Yarmuk, 18 miles (29 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Archaeological evidence ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32657,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Remeth","title_en":"Remeth","content_ro":"<h3>REMETH<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Issachar’s territory (Jos 19:21), and probably the same as Ramoth (1 Chr 6:73), also called Jarmuth. <em>See<\/em> Jarmuth #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REMETH<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Issachar’s territory (Jos 19:21), and probably the same as Ramoth (1 Chr 6:73), also called Jarmuth. <em>See<\/em> Jarmuth #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REMETH Border town in Issachar’s territory (Jos 19:21), and probably the same as Ramoth (1 Chr 6:73), also called Jarmuth. See Jarmuth #2.","summary_en":"REMETH Border town in Issachar’s territory (Jos 19:21), and probably the same as Ramoth (1 Chr 6:73), also called Jarmuth. See Jarmuth #2.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":4569,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Shemesh","title_en":"Beth-Shemesh","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","summary_en":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34574,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shahazumah","title_en":"Shahazumah","content_ro":"<h3>SHAHAZUMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town situated between Tabor and Beth-shemesh on the border of the land allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAHAZUMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Town situated between Tabor and Beth-shemesh on the border of the land allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAHAZUMAH Town situated between Tabor and Beth-shemesh on the border of the land allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:22).","summary_en":"SHAHAZUMAH Town situated between Tabor and Beth-shemesh on the border of the land allotted to Issachar’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:22).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36672,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mount Tabor","title_en":"Mount Tabor","content_ro":"<h3>TABOR, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Important hill in lower Galilee located in the northeast area of the Jezreel Valley. About six miles (9.7 kilometers) east of Nazareth, Tabor rises abruptly from the valley floor. Appearing more prominent than its height would indicate (1,929 feet, or 587.9 meters), it became an important geographical reference point in antiquity. It defined the western boundary of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22) and was a useful navigation tool on the international coastal highway (the Via Maris) that passed through Megiddo in Galilee en route to Hazor. Its prominence invited comparison with Mt Hermon far to the north (Ps 89:12; cf. Jer 46:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Mt Tabor is mentioned in the book of Judges when Deborah and Barak fight Sisera, the commander of a Canaanite army from Hazor (Jgs 4:1-24). Barak’s troops from the nearby tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun met on Mt Tabor and at Deborah’s command launched a successful campaign against Sisera. Later in the same book, Mt Tabor was named as the place where Gideon finally confronted the Midianite kings, Zebah and Zalmunna, who had killed his brothers (8:18).<\/p>\n<p>Strategically located, Tabor’s moderately sized top, less than a half mile square (1.3 square kilometers), was easily fortified. During the OT kingdom period, shrines may been located there (see Hos 5:1), but by the Hellenistic era, fortifications were built. The Ptolemies strengthened it, and by the time of Antiochus III (218 <span>BC<\/span>), Tabor may have become the administrative center of the Jezreel Valley. The Roman era witnessed various conflicts on Mt Tabor. In the major Jewish war of <span>AD<\/span> 66, Josephus fortified the hill with a large wall, which is still visible. Since the fourth century, Mt Tabor has been identified as the site of Jesus’ transfiguration (Mk 9:2-13). This is uncertain, however, since the NT fails to mention Mt Tabor by name. Helena, the mother of Constantine, was convinced that the Transfiguration did take place there, and in <span>AD<\/span> 326 she built a church on the site. Other shrines, monasteries, and churches graced the hill until the 12th century, when everything was destroyed by the Arab conqueror Saladin. Today a Greek Orthodox monastery and a Latin basilica dating from the 19th century can be seen on the mountain.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABOR, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Important hill in lower Galilee located in the northeast area of the Jezreel Valley. About six miles (9.7 kilometers) east of Nazareth, Tabor rises abruptly from the valley floor. Appearing more prominent than its height would indicate (1,929 feet, or 587.9 meters), it became an important geographical reference point in antiquity. It defined the western boundary of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22) and was a useful navigation tool on the international coastal highway (the Via Maris) that passed through Megiddo in Galilee en route to Hazor. Its prominence invited comparison with Mt Hermon far to the north (Ps 89:12; cf. Jer 46:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Mt Tabor is mentioned in the book of Judges when Deborah and Barak fight Sisera, the commander of a Canaanite army from Hazor (Jgs 4:1-24). Barak’s troops from the nearby tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun met on Mt Tabor and at Deborah’s command launched a successful campaign against Sisera. Later in the same book, Mt Tabor was named as the place where Gideon finally confronted the Midianite kings, Zebah and Zalmunna, who had killed his brothers (8:18).<\/p>\n<p>Strategically located, Tabor’s moderately sized top, less than a half mile square (1.3 square kilometers), was easily fortified. During the OT kingdom period, shrines may been located there (see Hos 5:1), but by the Hellenistic era, fortifications were built. The Ptolemies strengthened it, and by the time of Antiochus III (218 <span>BC<\/span>), Tabor may have become the administrative center of the Jezreel Valley. The Roman era witnessed various conflicts on Mt Tabor. In the major Jewish war of <span>AD<\/span> 66, Josephus fortified the hill with a large wall, which is still visible. Since the fourth century, Mt Tabor has been identified as the site of Jesus’ transfiguration (Mk 9:2-13). This is uncertain, however, since the NT fails to mention Mt Tabor by name. Helena, the mother of Constantine, was convinced that the Transfiguration did take place there, and in <span>AD<\/span> 326 she built a church on the site. Other shrines, monasteries, and churches graced the hill until the 12th century, when everything was destroyed by the Arab conqueror Saladin. Today a Greek Orthodox monastery and a Latin basilica dating from the 19th century can be seen on the mountain.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABOR, Mount Important hill in lower Galilee located in the northeast area of the Jezreel Valley. About six miles (9.7 kilometers) east of Nazareth, Tabor rises abruptly from the valley floor. Appearing more prominent than its height would indicate (1,929 feet, or 587.9 meters), it became an important geographical reference point in antiquity. It defined the western boundary of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22) and was a useful navigation tool on the international coastal highway (the Via Maris) t...","summary_en":"TABOR, Mount Important hill in lower Galilee located in the northeast area of the Jezreel Valley. About six miles (9.7 kilometers) east of Nazareth, Tabor rises abruptly from the valley floor. Appearing more prominent than its height would indicate (1,929 feet, or 587.9 meters), it became an important geographical reference point in antiquity. It defined the western boundary of Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22) and was a useful navigation tool on the international coastal highway (the Via Maris) t...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":2935,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asher (Tribe)","title_en":"Asher (Tribe)","content_ro":"<h3>ASHER (T<span>ribe<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe that inhabited the fertile coastal territory when the Promised Land was divided for settlement. Asher’s allotment stretched north of Mt Carmel to a point slightly above the city of Sidon. The eastern boundary ran along the western slopes of the hills of Galilee (Jos 19:24-34). The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali were Asher’s eastern neighbors. Due south, the Carmel mountain range was a natural barrier between Asher and the tribe of Manasseh. The land of Asher was agriculturally rich and is still known for its olive groves. Economically, the people of Asher joined in maritime trade with the Phoenicians of the city of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>As a tribe, Asher fluctuated in size. From the few who entered Egypt with their father, Jacob, the tribe grew to 41,500 adult warriors at Mt Sinai (Nm 1:40-41). At the second census in the wilderness the tribe numbered 53,400 soldiers (Nm 26:47). At the time of King David the number varied from 26,000 to 40,000 warriors (1 Chr 7:40; 12:36). Asher was never more than fifth in size among the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The tribe joined the rest of Israel in rejecting the optimistic reports of Caleb and Joshua about the land of Canaan (Nm 13:30–14:10). As a result, that generation perished in the wilderness after 40 years of wandering (Nm 14:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the northern campaign in the Promised Land, Joshua gave the remaining seven tribes their own territory (Jos 18:2). The fifth partition went to Asher’s descendants. Earlier, Ahihud had been chosen by God to distribute land within the territory given to Asher’s tribe (Nm 34:16, 27). Certain Levites, descendants of Gershom, were allocated cities within its borders (Jos 21:6, 30; 1 Chr 6:62, 74).<\/p>\n<p>Like all the Israelite tribes, Asher was never able to possess all of its inheritance. Failure to drive out the inhabitants of Acco, Sidon, Ahlab, Achzib, Helbah, Aphik, and Rehob subjected the tribe to the degradations of pagan culture (Jgs 1:31). The “unpossessed” territory of the Sidonians and the Phoenicians stretched along the coastal region for 200 miles (322 kilometers). Thus “the Asherites dwelt among the Canaanites, the inhabitants of the land; for they did not drive them out” (Jgs 1:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). It is possible that Asher’s tribe, having become a partner in the enterprises of the successful Phoenicians, lost all desire to expel them from their cities.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of the Israelite judge Ehud, Israel fell into the hands of Jabin, king of Canaan. When the judge Deborah stirred up Barak to marshal Israel’s forces for battle, God gave their army a great victory and liberated them from their oppressor (Jgs 4). After the victory Deborah complained that “Asher sat unmoved at the seashore, remaining in his harbors” (Jgs 5:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eventually, through amalgamation, the tribe succumbed to Phoenician religious and cultural influences. Foreign invasion and pagan inroads were its downfall.<\/p>\n<p>Little is said in the Bible of the tribe’s leadership. At the time of the exodus, when the nation was organized at Mt Sinai, Pagiel the son of Ochran became tribal chief (Nm 1:13; 2:27; 7:72; 10:26). But the Bible is silent from then on about Asher’s leaders. None of the judges of Israel came from Asher, and in King David’s day the tribes of Asher and Gad were omitted from the list of the nation’s chief officers (1 Chr 27:16-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, there are some bright spots in Asher’s tribal history. The tribe answered the call of Gideon to drive out the Midianite enemy (Jgs 6:1-8, 35; 7:23). They rallied with the rest of the tribes of Israel to defend Saul, their first king (1 Sm 11:7). Later, 40,000 Asherites sided with David to give him Saul’s kingdom (1 Chr 12:23-36). After the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, a small remnant came to Jerusalem to observe the first Passover feast in many years (2 Chr 30:5), when King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) invited all the tribes to assemble for the Passover (2 Chr 30:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT one of Asher’s descendants is mentioned, an 84-year-old widow named Anna, a prophetess. She described Jesus as “the redemption of Jerusalem” from the time of his dedication to the Lord in the temple (Lk 2:36-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHER (T<span>ribe<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe that inhabited the fertile coastal territory when the Promised Land was divided for settlement. Asher’s allotment stretched north of Mt Carmel to a point slightly above the city of Sidon. The eastern boundary ran along the western slopes of the hills of Galilee (Jos 19:24-34). The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali were Asher’s eastern neighbors. Due south, the Carmel mountain range was a natural barrier between Asher and the tribe of Manasseh. The land of Asher was agriculturally rich and is still known for its olive groves. Economically, the people of Asher joined in maritime trade with the Phoenicians of the city of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>As a tribe, Asher fluctuated in size. From the few who entered Egypt with their father, Jacob, the tribe grew to 41,500 adult warriors at Mt Sinai (Nm 1:40-41). At the second census in the wilderness the tribe numbered 53,400 soldiers (Nm 26:47). At the time of King David the number varied from 26,000 to 40,000 warriors (1 Chr 7:40; 12:36). Asher was never more than fifth in size among the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The tribe joined the rest of Israel in rejecting the optimistic reports of Caleb and Joshua about the land of Canaan (Nm 13:30–14:10). As a result, that generation perished in the wilderness after 40 years of wandering (Nm 14:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the northern campaign in the Promised Land, Joshua gave the remaining seven tribes their own territory (Jos 18:2). The fifth partition went to Asher’s descendants. Earlier, Ahihud had been chosen by God to distribute land within the territory given to Asher’s tribe (Nm 34:16, 27). Certain Levites, descendants of Gershom, were allocated cities within its borders (Jos 21:6, 30; 1 Chr 6:62, 74).<\/p>\n<p>Like all the Israelite tribes, Asher was never able to possess all of its inheritance. Failure to drive out the inhabitants of Acco, Sidon, Ahlab, Achzib, Helbah, Aphik, and Rehob subjected the tribe to the degradations of pagan culture (Jgs 1:31). The “unpossessed” territory of the Sidonians and the Phoenicians stretched along the coastal region for 200 miles (322 kilometers). Thus “the Asherites dwelt among the Canaanites, the inhabitants of the land; for they did not drive them out” (Jgs 1:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). It is possible that Asher’s tribe, having become a partner in the enterprises of the successful Phoenicians, lost all desire to expel them from their cities.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of the Israelite judge Ehud, Israel fell into the hands of Jabin, king of Canaan. When the judge Deborah stirred up Barak to marshal Israel’s forces for battle, God gave their army a great victory and liberated them from their oppressor (Jgs 4). After the victory Deborah complained that “Asher sat unmoved at the seashore, remaining in his harbors” (Jgs 5:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eventually, through amalgamation, the tribe succumbed to Phoenician religious and cultural influences. Foreign invasion and pagan inroads were its downfall.<\/p>\n<p>Little is said in the Bible of the tribe’s leadership. At the time of the exodus, when the nation was organized at Mt Sinai, Pagiel the son of Ochran became tribal chief (Nm 1:13; 2:27; 7:72; 10:26). But the Bible is silent from then on about Asher’s leaders. None of the judges of Israel came from Asher, and in King David’s day the tribes of Asher and Gad were omitted from the list of the nation’s chief officers (1 Chr 27:16-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, there are some bright spots in Asher’s tribal history. The tribe answered the call of Gideon to drive out the Midianite enemy (Jgs 6:1-8, 35; 7:23). They rallied with the rest of the tribes of Israel to defend Saul, their first king (1 Sm 11:7). Later, 40,000 Asherites sided with David to give him Saul’s kingdom (1 Chr 12:23-36). After the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, a small remnant came to Jerusalem to observe the first Passover feast in many years (2 Chr 30:5), when King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) invited all the tribes to assemble for the Passover (2 Chr 30:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT one of Asher’s descendants is mentioned, an 84-year-old widow named Anna, a prophetess. She described Jesus as “the redemption of Jerusalem” from the time of his dedication to the Lord in the temple (Lk 2:36-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHER (Tribe) Israelite tribe that inhabited the fertile coastal territory when the Promised Land was divided for settlement. Asher’s allotment stretched north of Mt Carmel to a point slightly above the city of Sidon. The eastern boundary ran along the western slopes of the hills of Galilee (Jos 19:24-34). The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali were Asher’s eastern neighbors. Due south, the Carmel mountain range was a natural barrier between Asher and the tribe of Manasseh. The land of Asher was ...","summary_en":"ASHER (Tribe) Israelite tribe that inhabited the fertile coastal territory when the Promised Land was divided for settlement. Asher’s allotment stretched north of Mt Carmel to a point slightly above the city of Sidon. The eastern boundary ran along the western slopes of the hills of Galilee (Jos 19:24-34). The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali were Asher’s eastern neighbors. Due south, the Carmel mountain range was a natural barrier between Asher and the tribe of Manasseh. The land of Asher was ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20849,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45574,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","summary_en":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73200,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","summary_en":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100826,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","summary_en":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128452,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-31<\/strong> The land allocated to <em>the tribe of Asher<\/em> included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher <em>touched Carmel<\/em><em>,<\/em> sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","summary_en":"19:24-31 The land allocated to the tribe of Asher included the Plain of Acco on the Mediterranean coast and western Galilee. To the southwest, Asher touched Carmel, sharing at least a short common border with land allotted to the tribe of Manasseh. To the north, the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon limited Asher’s expansion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":351,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Achshaph*","title_en":"Achshaph*","content_ro":"<h3>ACHSHAPH*<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite royal city in Joshua’s time. Its king joined an alliance led by Jabin, king of Hazor, against Israel in a battle at the springs of Merom (Jos 11:1). After Israel’s decisive victory, Achshaph’s king was one of 31 Canaanite kings conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:20), fulfilling God’s promise to deliver kings into Israel’s hand (Dt 7:24). The city was subsequently assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACHSHAPH*<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite royal city in Joshua’s time. Its king joined an alliance led by Jabin, king of Hazor, against Israel in a battle at the springs of Merom (Jos 11:1). After Israel’s decisive victory, Achshaph’s king was one of 31 Canaanite kings conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:20), fulfilling God’s promise to deliver kings into Israel’s hand (Dt 7:24). The city was subsequently assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACHSHAPH* Canaanite royal city in Joshua’s time. Its king joined an alliance led by Jabin, king of Hazor, against Israel in a battle at the springs of Merom (Jos 11:1). After Israel’s decisive victory, Achshaph’s king was one of 31 Canaanite kings conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:20), fulfilling God’s promise to deliver kings into Israel’s hand (Dt 7:24). The city was subsequently assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25).","summary_en":"ACHSHAPH* Canaanite royal city in Joshua’s time. Its king joined an alliance led by Jabin, king of Hazor, against Israel in a battle at the springs of Merom (Jos 11:1). After Israel’s decisive victory, Achshaph’s king was one of 31 Canaanite kings conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:20), fulfilling God’s promise to deliver kings into Israel’s hand (Dt 7:24). The city was subsequently assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4392,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beten","title_en":"Beten","content_ro":"<h3>BETEN<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hali and Achshaph (Jos 19:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETEN<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hali and Achshaph (Jos 19:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETEN City allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hali and Achshaph (Jos 19:25).","summary_en":"BETEN City allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Hali and Achshaph (Jos 19:25).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hali","title_en":"Hali","content_ro":"<h3>HALI<\/h3>\n<p>Town mentioned among those that formed the border of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:25). Hali may have been located west of Mt Carmel, but this is uncertain.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HALI<\/h3>\n<p>Town mentioned among those that formed the border of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:25). Hali may have been located west of Mt Carmel, but this is uncertain.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HALI Town mentioned among those that formed the border of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:25). Hali may have been located west of Mt Carmel, but this is uncertain.","summary_en":"HALI Town mentioned among those that formed the border of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:25). Hali may have been located west of Mt Carmel, but this is uncertain.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16105,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Helkath","title_en":"Helkath","content_ro":"<h3>HELKATH<\/h3>\n<p>First of 22 cities mentioned in the territory allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25). Helkath was one of four cities in Asher given to the Levitical Gershonite families (21:31). It is alternately spelled Hukok in 1 Chronicles 6:75. Its ancient site is perhaps located at the modern Tell el-Harbaj.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELKATH<\/h3>\n<p>First of 22 cities mentioned in the territory allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25). Helkath was one of four cities in Asher given to the Levitical Gershonite families (21:31). It is alternately spelled Hukok in 1 Chronicles 6:75. Its ancient site is perhaps located at the modern Tell el-Harbaj.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELKATH First of 22 cities mentioned in the territory allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25). Helkath was one of four cities in Asher given to the Levitical Gershonite families (21:31). It is alternately spelled Hukok in 1 Chronicles 6:75. Its ancient site is perhaps located at the modern Tell el-Harbaj.","summary_en":"HELKATH First of 22 cities mentioned in the territory allotted to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:25). Helkath was one of four cities in Asher given to the Levitical Gershonite families (21:31). It is alternately spelled Hukok in 1 Chronicles 6:75. Its ancient site is perhaps located at the modern Tell el-Harbaj.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":1033,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alammelech*","title_en":"Alammelech*","content_ro":"<h3>ALAMMELECH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Allammelech in Joshua 19:26. <em>See<\/em> Allammelech.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALAMMELECH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Allammelech in Joshua 19:26. <em>See<\/em> Allammelech.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALAMMELECH* KJV form of Allammelech in Joshua 19:26. See Allammelech.","summary_en":"ALAMMELECH* KJV form of Allammelech in Joshua 19:26. See Allammelech.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1064,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Allammelech","title_en":"Allammelech","content_ro":"<h3>ALLAMMELECH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALLAMMELECH<\/h3>\n<p>Town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALLAMMELECH Town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).","summary_en":"ALLAMMELECH Town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1192,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amad","title_en":"Amad","content_ro":"<h3>AMAD<\/h3>\n<p>Town in northern Palestine near Mt Carmel, within the boundaries of Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMAD<\/h3>\n<p>Town in northern Palestine near Mt Carmel, within the boundaries of Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMAD Town in northern Palestine near Mt Carmel, within the boundaries of Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).","summary_en":"AMAD Town in northern Palestine near Mt Carmel, within the boundaries of Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26074,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mishal","title_en":"Mishal","content_ro":"<h3>MISHAL<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26; 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). <em>See<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISHAL<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26; 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). <em>See<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISHAL Levitical town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26; 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). See Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"MISHAL Levitical town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:26; 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). See Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26078,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Misheal*","title_en":"Misheal*","content_ro":"<h3>MISHEAL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Levitical town Mishal in Joshua 19:26. <em>See<\/em> Mishal.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISHEAL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Levitical town Mishal in Joshua 19:26. <em>See<\/em> Mishal.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISHEAL* KJV spelling of the Levitical town Mishal in Joshua 19:26. See Mishal.","summary_en":"MISHEAL* KJV spelling of the Levitical town Mishal in Joshua 19:26. See Mishal.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35054,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shihor-Libnath","title_en":"Shihor-Libnath","content_ro":"<h3>SHIHOR-LIBNATH<\/h3>\n<p>Place defining the southern boundary of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:26). Some have identified it with the Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), which flows into the Mediterranean Sea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHIHOR-LIBNATH<\/h3>\n<p>Place defining the southern boundary of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:26). Some have identified it with the Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), which flows into the Mediterranean Sea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHIHOR-LIBNATH Place defining the southern boundary of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:26). Some have identified it with the Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), which flows into the Mediterranean Sea.","summary_en":"SHIHOR-LIBNATH Place defining the southern boundary of Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:26). Some have identified it with the Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), which flows into the Mediterranean Sea.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":4426,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Dagon","title_en":"Beth-Dagon","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Shrine of the Philistine and Canaanite god Dagon mentioned in several sources other than the Bible. A fortress called Dagon near Jericho was mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, for example. Many Canaanite locations may have been known for their shrines to Dagon:<\/p>\n<p>1. Town in Judah’s lowlands (Jos 15:41). This Beth-dagon was mentioned both by Ramses III of Egypt and by Sennacherib of Assyria (701 <span>BC<\/span>) as having been captured by them.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town on the border of Asher’s territory, east of Mt Carmel (Jos 19:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple in Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1-2; called Azotus in 1 Macc 10:83-84).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Shrine of the Philistine and Canaanite god Dagon mentioned in several sources other than the Bible. A fortress called Dagon near Jericho was mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, for example. Many Canaanite locations may have been known for their shrines to Dagon:<\/p>\n<p>1. Town in Judah’s lowlands (Jos 15:41). This Beth-dagon was mentioned both by Ramses III of Egypt and by Sennacherib of Assyria (701 <span>BC<\/span>) as having been captured by them.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town on the border of Asher’s territory, east of Mt Carmel (Jos 19:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple in Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1-2; called Azotus in 1 Macc 10:83-84).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETH-DAGON Shrine of the Philistine and Canaanite god Dagon mentioned in several sources other than the Bible. A fortress called Dagon near Jericho was mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, for example. Many Canaanite locations may have been known for their shrines to Dagon: 1. Town in Judah’s lowlands (Jos 15:41). This Beth-dagon was mentioned both by Ramses III of Egypt and by Sennacherib of Assyria (701 BC) as having been captured by them. 2. Town on the border of Asher’s territory, ...","summary_en":"BETH-DAGON Shrine of the Philistine and Canaanite god Dagon mentioned in several sources other than the Bible. A fortress called Dagon near Jericho was mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, for example. Many Canaanite locations may have been known for their shrines to Dagon: 1. Town in Judah’s lowlands (Jos 15:41). This Beth-dagon was mentioned both by Ramses III of Egypt and by Sennacherib of Assyria (701 BC) as having been captured by them. 2. Town on the border of Asher’s territory, ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4459,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Emek","title_en":"Beth-Emek","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-EMEK<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the territorial boundary between the tribes of Asher and Zebulun (Jos 19:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-EMEK<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the territorial boundary between the tribes of Asher and Zebulun (Jos 19:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-EMEK Town on the territorial boundary between the tribes of Asher and Zebulun (Jos 19:27).","summary_en":"BETH-EMEK Town on the territorial boundary between the tribes of Asher and Zebulun (Jos 19:27).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5886,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cabul","title_en":"Cabul","content_ro":"<h3>CABUL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Asherite town near Mt Carmel on the border between Israel and Tyre (Jos 19:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory given to Hiram, king of Tyre, by Solomon in exchange for a gift of 120 talents (9,000 pounds, 4 metric tons) of gold for completion of the temple. Hiram, not impressed with this northern Galilean province (1 Kgs 9:13-14), later returned it to Solomon (2 Chr 8:2).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>CABUL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Asherite town near Mt Carmel on the border between Israel and Tyre (Jos 19:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Territory given to Hiram, king of Tyre, by Solomon in exchange for a gift of 120 talents (9,000 pounds, 4 metric tons) of gold for completion of the temple. Hiram, not impressed with this northern Galilean province (1 Kgs 9:13-14), later returned it to Solomon (2 Chr 8:2).<\/li>","summary_ro":"CABUL 1. Asherite town near Mt Carmel on the border between Israel and Tyre (Jos 19:27). 2. Territory given to Hiram, king of Tyre, by Solomon in exchange for a gift of 120 talents (9,000 pounds, 4 metric tons) of gold for completion of the temple. Hiram, not impressed with this northern Galilean province (1 Kgs 9:13-14), later returned it to Solomon (2 Chr 8:2).","summary_en":"CABUL 1. Asherite town near Mt Carmel on the border between Israel and Tyre (Jos 19:27). 2. Territory given to Hiram, king of Tyre, by Solomon in exchange for a gift of 120 talents (9,000 pounds, 4 metric tons) of gold for completion of the temple. Hiram, not impressed with this northern Galilean province (1 Kgs 9:13-14), later returned it to Solomon (2 Chr 8:2).","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8451,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dagon","title_en":"Dagon","content_ro":"<h3>DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). <em>See<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). <em>See<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAGON Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). See Canaanite Deities and Religion.","summary_en":"DAGON Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). See Canaanite Deities and Religion.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13143,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Galilee","title_en":"Galilee","content_ro":"<h3>GALILEE<\/h3>\n<p>Area in northern Palestine that, in Israel’s earlier history, had boundaries that were not clearly defined but that became more precisely defined in the period of Roman rule. The English name Galilee comes from two Hebrew words meaning “circuit” or “district.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalBackground\">Historical Background<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Galilee was not significant in Israelite life, but in NT times it was a prominent Jewish population center. Galilee is first mentioned in the Bible as the location of Kedesh, a city of refuge in the hill country of Naphtali (Jos 20:7; cf. 21:32; 1 Chr 6:76).<\/p>\n<p>Galilee originally designated the area occupied by the tribes of Naphtali, Zebulun (Is 9:1), and possibly Asher (if Cabul in Jos 19:27 is the same city as in 1 Kgs 9:11-13). None of those tribes was able to completely expel the original Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:30-33; 2:1-4), and as a result, Galilee tended to be racially mixed. The cities that King Solomon gave to Hiram, gentile king of Tyre, were within Galilee (1 Kgs 9:11), and the gentile intermixture in that area may have influenced Solomon’s choice of those cities for a gift. This racially mixed condition is also the probable basis for the designation in Isaiah 9:1, “Galilee of the nations” (cf. Mt 4:15; 1 Macc 5:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the monarchy, Galilee was a buffer zone between Israel and Syria, and it bore the brunt of Syrian invasions against Israel. This fact is cited by the prophet Isaiah (Is 9:1), but he saw it as the prelude to a brighter day when the messianic king would reign. Galilee was conquered by Syrian King Ben-hadad (1 Kgs 15:20) and was probably recovered by Israel’s King Ahab. Galilee was later subjugated by the Arameans under Hazael (2 Kgs 10:32; 12:18; 13:22) and regained by Jeroboam II (2 Kgs 14:23-25). As a result of Assyrian conquests in the area of Damascus and Galilee in 732 <span>BC<\/span> by Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kgs 15:29), more Gentiles were imported into the area while many of the Jewish inhabitants were deported. This naturally led to greater gentile influence and domination in Galilee. Under the successive influence of Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Syria, Galilee was constantly experiencing infiltration and migration. From the time of the Assyrian conquest of Israel to about the end of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, Galilee’s population was dominated by Gentiles, with only a few Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews remaining in Galilee were brought to Judea by Simon Maccabeus in 164 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 5:21-23). Galilee was conquered by Aristobulus I (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), who forced the inhabitants to be circumcised and to submit to Jewish laws, a work that probably already had been initiated by John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<p>Herod the Great (ruler under Rome, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) affixed Galilee to his kingdom, and more Jews were attracted there. Josephus recorded that Galilee had 240 cities and villages and 100,000 men available to fight against the Romans. After the death of Herod the Great, Galilee was included in the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). With the banishment of Herod Antipas in <span>AD<\/span> 39, Galilee was added to the territory of Herod Agrippa I, who ruled it until he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44. Rome directly administered Galilee until it was put under the rule of Herod Agrippa II. By siding with the Romans during the Jewish revolts, he was able to retain his position until <span>AD<\/span> 100. In spite of the Galileans’ attempt to gain independence, the revolutionary faction was brought under subjection by Vespasian in <span>AD<\/span> 67. After Herod Agrippa II’s death, Galilee became part of the Roman province of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the Sanhedrin and many other Jews of southern Palestine flocked to Galilee. As a result, such cities as Tiberias and Sepphoris became Jewish, and the dispersed Jews came to think of Galilee as their center. Tiberias became a center for Jewish learning, and it was there that such major contributions as the Tiberian system of vowel pointing the Hebrew consonantal text were made, as well as the formulation of the Mishnah and the Palestinian Talmud.<\/p>\n<p>From about <span>AD<\/span> 451 until the Muslim rule over Galilee began in the seventh century, Galilee was governed by the Christian patriarchate of Jerusalem, set up by the Council of Chalcedon in <span>AD<\/span> 451. Muslim rule from the seventh century on was continuous except for the intervals caused by the twelfth-century Crusades and World War I. All of Galilee has been included in the modern state of Israel since its establishment in 1948.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Boundaries\">Boundaries<\/p>\n<p>Galilee was bounded on the east by the upper Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee and on the south by the plain of Esdraelon, which served as a natural boundary between Galilee and Samaria. At times the plain was included in Galilee, as it was during the intertestamental period (1 Macc 10:30; 12:47-49). While the northern boundary was uncertain and variable during Galilee’s history, in NT times it reached to Lake Huleh. The western boundary followed the Mediterranean Sea to Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>From the time of the divided kingdom until the Assyrian conquest of Galilee (734 <span>BC<\/span>), it was the northernmost part of the kingdom of Israel. The area was divided into upper Galilee and lower Galilee by the plain of Ramah, which ran between Capernaum and Ptolemais (cf. Jdt 1:8; 1 Macc 12:49; Josephus’s <em>War<\/em> 3.3.1). In the Mishnah (compilation of early rabbinical interpretation of the Law), Galilee is divided into three parts corresponding to the natural divisions of plain, hill country, and mountain. Under Roman rule, Galilee was about 25 to 30 miles (40 to 50 kilometers) from east to west and about 35 to 40 miles (55 to 65 kilometers) from north to south.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The attractive Galilean landscape is made up of volcanic limestone hills and fertile alluvial plains. Its climate is cooler than that of any other part of Palestine, and its beauty and fertility contrast sharply with the barren, sun-baked hills of southern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The physical features range from the high mountains in the north to the plain of Esdraelon in the south. Mt Tabor is prominent on the east, while Mt Carmel stands out on the west. Much of upper Galilee is 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above sea level, and in NT times it was largely forested and less densely inhabited than lower Galilee. Lower Galilee starts at 1,500 to 2,000 feet (450 to 600 meters) above sea level and descends sharply to the Sea of Galilee, more than 600 feet (182.9 meters) below sea level.<\/p>\n<p>Besides the average annual rainfall of 25 inches (63.5 centimeters), Galilee is watered by the streams that flow from springs in the hills and are the main sources of the beautiful Kishon River at Janin, and the headwaters of the Jordan River, the largest river in Palestine. The ground is also moistened by heavy dews resulting from climatic conditions created by the Lebanon mountain range to the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cities\">Cities<\/p>\n<p>Among the more notable cities in Galilee’s early history were Kedesh in Naphtali, a city of refuge (Jos 20:7; 21:32; 1 Chr 6:76), and Hazor, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee (Jos 11:10; 1 Kgs 9:15). During the time of Christ, Chorazin (Mt 11:21) and Capernaum (4:13; 11:23) were prominent cities located in the northeast near the Sea of Galilee. Capernaum seems to have been a center for Jesus’ ministry in the area (Mt 4:13; Mk 2:1; 9:33; etc.). Nazareth is especially significant as the city of Christ’s childhood (Mt 2:22-23; Lk 2:39; 4:16; etc.). Nain (Lk 7:11-17), located on the northern edge of the mountain now called Little Hermon, and Cana of Galilee (Jn 2:1-11) also figured prominently in Christ’s ministry. Sepphoris and Tiberias were important cities during Roman administration.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RoadsandTravel\">Roads and Travel<\/p>\n<p>Many roads traversed Galilee, and those in NT times were superior due to Roman construction and maintenance.<\/p>\n<p>Among the best-known trade routes was the Via Maris (the Way of the Sea), which ran through Galilee on its way from Damascus to Egypt. Another main road ran from Tiberias, near the Sea of Galilee, to Acco (Ptolemais), a port on the Phoenician coast. Major caravan routes also connected Galilee with the markets of the East. The area was tied together by a network of spurs and connecting roads that branched from the main highways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Inhabitants\">Inhabitants<\/p>\n<p>The occupants of Galilee (Galileans) were basically Jewish in religious and patriotic orientation, but they were composed of various ethnic elements. The influence of this mixture was sufficient to cause recognizable differences in speech from that of southern Palestine (cf. Mt 26:69, 73). The Galileans absorbed more Greek and Roman influences than did the Judean Jews. The racial mixture, differences in speech, and location caused Judean Jews to view Galilee and its inhabitants with contempt (Jn 1:46; 7:41, 52).<\/p>\n<p>Lower Galilee was densely settled with villages, and in NT times the population was probably about three million. The fertility of the soil and resultant fruitfulness of the country produced a prosperous Jewish populace, particularly in the centuries immediately after the time of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/p>\n<p>Galilee was under the Roman rule of emperors Augustus and Tiberius during the time of Christ. Roman fortifications throughout Galilee were a constant reminder of the presence and influence of the Roman Empire. During Christ’s ministry, Rome installed the tetrarch Herod Antipas (Mt 14:1; Lk 23:5-7) to rule the territory. He was appointed to office when 17 years old. Sepphoris was his first capital; in about <span>AD<\/span> 22 he built Tiberias on the shore of the Sea of Galilee as his new capital, in honor of the emperor.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Products\">Products<\/p>\n<p>Abundant crops enabled Galilee to provide produce for the neighboring Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon around the middle of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Main crops included grapes, pomegranates, olives, and grains. Fishing in the Sea of Galilee was a prominent business in NT times (Mk 1:14-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusandGalilee\">Jesus and Galilee<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was raised in Galilee (Lk 4:16), and 11 of his 12 disciples were from there (Judas Iscariot was the only Judean).<\/p>\n<p>The culture, commerce, farming, and fishing business of the area formed the background for much of Jesus’ ministry, as his parables show (Mt 20:1-8; 21:33; Mk 4:3; Lk 13:6-9). The first three Gospels are largely occupied with Christ’s ministry in Galilee, with much of it being spent around the Sea of Galilee. Most of his parables (19 of 32) were spoken here, and the vast majority of his miracles (25 of 33) were performed in Galilee. Jesus received his greatest response in this region. The Sermon on the Mount was spoken in Galilee, and one of its mountains was the scene of the Lord’s transfiguration. Many of the women who followed Christ and ministered to him also came from there (Mt 27:55). Two of Christ’s most significant postresurrection appearances took place in Galilee (Mt 28:16-20; Jn 21:1-23), and one of Christ’s own titles, Jesus of Nazareth (Jn 1:45), identified him as a Galilean.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galileans\">Galileans<\/p>\n<p>Since Jesus and most of the 12 disciples were from Galilee, it was natural for the term to be applied to all of his followers, especially since it implied that the movement was not as pure as Judean Judaism. Some interpreters believe that Luke 22:59 is an example of the use of “Galilean” as a title; in Acts 1:11 and 2:7 it is merely a geographical reference. One sure reference to Christians by that title appears in the work of the pagan philosopher Epictetus (<span>AD<\/span> 50?–135?), who was impressed with how Christians died for their faith. It is not clear how common the title of Galilean was, but it had obviously spread from Judea to Rome, where Epictetus lived.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Palestine; Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALILEE<\/h3>\n<p>Area in northern Palestine that, in Israel’s earlier history, had boundaries that were not clearly defined but that became more precisely defined in the period of Roman rule. The English name Galilee comes from two Hebrew words meaning “circuit” or “district.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalBackground\">Historical Background<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Galilee was not significant in Israelite life, but in NT times it was a prominent Jewish population center. Galilee is first mentioned in the Bible as the location of Kedesh, a city of refuge in the hill country of Naphtali (Jos 20:7; cf. 21:32; 1 Chr 6:76).<\/p>\n<p>Galilee originally designated the area occupied by the tribes of Naphtali, Zebulun (Is 9:1), and possibly Asher (if Cabul in Jos 19:27 is the same city as in 1 Kgs 9:11-13). None of those tribes was able to completely expel the original Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:30-33; 2:1-4), and as a result, Galilee tended to be racially mixed. The cities that King Solomon gave to Hiram, gentile king of Tyre, were within Galilee (1 Kgs 9:11), and the gentile intermixture in that area may have influenced Solomon’s choice of those cities for a gift. This racially mixed condition is also the probable basis for the designation in Isaiah 9:1, “Galilee of the nations” (cf. Mt 4:15; 1 Macc 5:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the monarchy, Galilee was a buffer zone between Israel and Syria, and it bore the brunt of Syrian invasions against Israel. This fact is cited by the prophet Isaiah (Is 9:1), but he saw it as the prelude to a brighter day when the messianic king would reign. Galilee was conquered by Syrian King Ben-hadad (1 Kgs 15:20) and was probably recovered by Israel’s King Ahab. Galilee was later subjugated by the Arameans under Hazael (2 Kgs 10:32; 12:18; 13:22) and regained by Jeroboam II (2 Kgs 14:23-25). As a result of Assyrian conquests in the area of Damascus and Galilee in 732 <span>BC<\/span> by Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kgs 15:29), more Gentiles were imported into the area while many of the Jewish inhabitants were deported. This naturally led to greater gentile influence and domination in Galilee. Under the successive influence of Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Syria, Galilee was constantly experiencing infiltration and migration. From the time of the Assyrian conquest of Israel to about the end of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, Galilee’s population was dominated by Gentiles, with only a few Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews remaining in Galilee were brought to Judea by Simon Maccabeus in 164 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 5:21-23). Galilee was conquered by Aristobulus I (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), who forced the inhabitants to be circumcised and to submit to Jewish laws, a work that probably already had been initiated by John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<p>Herod the Great (ruler under Rome, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) affixed Galilee to his kingdom, and more Jews were attracted there. Josephus recorded that Galilee had 240 cities and villages and 100,000 men available to fight against the Romans. After the death of Herod the Great, Galilee was included in the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). With the banishment of Herod Antipas in <span>AD<\/span> 39, Galilee was added to the territory of Herod Agrippa I, who ruled it until he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44. Rome directly administered Galilee until it was put under the rule of Herod Agrippa II. By siding with the Romans during the Jewish revolts, he was able to retain his position until <span>AD<\/span> 100. In spite of the Galileans’ attempt to gain independence, the revolutionary faction was brought under subjection by Vespasian in <span>AD<\/span> 67. After Herod Agrippa II’s death, Galilee became part of the Roman province of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the Sanhedrin and many other Jews of southern Palestine flocked to Galilee. As a result, such cities as Tiberias and Sepphoris became Jewish, and the dispersed Jews came to think of Galilee as their center. Tiberias became a center for Jewish learning, and it was there that such major contributions as the Tiberian system of vowel pointing the Hebrew consonantal text were made, as well as the formulation of the Mishnah and the Palestinian Talmud.<\/p>\n<p>From about <span>AD<\/span> 451 until the Muslim rule over Galilee began in the seventh century, Galilee was governed by the Christian patriarchate of Jerusalem, set up by the Council of Chalcedon in <span>AD<\/span> 451. Muslim rule from the seventh century on was continuous except for the intervals caused by the twelfth-century Crusades and World War I. All of Galilee has been included in the modern state of Israel since its establishment in 1948.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Boundaries\">Boundaries<\/p>\n<p>Galilee was bounded on the east by the upper Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee and on the south by the plain of Esdraelon, which served as a natural boundary between Galilee and Samaria. At times the plain was included in Galilee, as it was during the intertestamental period (1 Macc 10:30; 12:47-49). While the northern boundary was uncertain and variable during Galilee’s history, in NT times it reached to Lake Huleh. The western boundary followed the Mediterranean Sea to Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>From the time of the divided kingdom until the Assyrian conquest of Galilee (734 <span>BC<\/span>), it was the northernmost part of the kingdom of Israel. The area was divided into upper Galilee and lower Galilee by the plain of Ramah, which ran between Capernaum and Ptolemais (cf. Jdt 1:8; 1 Macc 12:49; Josephus’s <em>War<\/em> 3.3.1). In the Mishnah (compilation of early rabbinical interpretation of the Law), Galilee is divided into three parts corresponding to the natural divisions of plain, hill country, and mountain. Under Roman rule, Galilee was about 25 to 30 miles (40 to 50 kilometers) from east to west and about 35 to 40 miles (55 to 65 kilometers) from north to south.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The attractive Galilean landscape is made up of volcanic limestone hills and fertile alluvial plains. Its climate is cooler than that of any other part of Palestine, and its beauty and fertility contrast sharply with the barren, sun-baked hills of southern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The physical features range from the high mountains in the north to the plain of Esdraelon in the south. Mt Tabor is prominent on the east, while Mt Carmel stands out on the west. Much of upper Galilee is 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above sea level, and in NT times it was largely forested and less densely inhabited than lower Galilee. Lower Galilee starts at 1,500 to 2,000 feet (450 to 600 meters) above sea level and descends sharply to the Sea of Galilee, more than 600 feet (182.9 meters) below sea level.<\/p>\n<p>Besides the average annual rainfall of 25 inches (63.5 centimeters), Galilee is watered by the streams that flow from springs in the hills and are the main sources of the beautiful Kishon River at Janin, and the headwaters of the Jordan River, the largest river in Palestine. The ground is also moistened by heavy dews resulting from climatic conditions created by the Lebanon mountain range to the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cities\">Cities<\/p>\n<p>Among the more notable cities in Galilee’s early history were Kedesh in Naphtali, a city of refuge (Jos 20:7; 21:32; 1 Chr 6:76), and Hazor, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee (Jos 11:10; 1 Kgs 9:15). During the time of Christ, Chorazin (Mt 11:21) and Capernaum (4:13; 11:23) were prominent cities located in the northeast near the Sea of Galilee. Capernaum seems to have been a center for Jesus’ ministry in the area (Mt 4:13; Mk 2:1; 9:33; etc.). Nazareth is especially significant as the city of Christ’s childhood (Mt 2:22-23; Lk 2:39; 4:16; etc.). Nain (Lk 7:11-17), located on the northern edge of the mountain now called Little Hermon, and Cana of Galilee (Jn 2:1-11) also figured prominently in Christ’s ministry. Sepphoris and Tiberias were important cities during Roman administration.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RoadsandTravel\">Roads and Travel<\/p>\n<p>Many roads traversed Galilee, and those in NT times were superior due to Roman construction and maintenance.<\/p>\n<p>Among the best-known trade routes was the Via Maris (the Way of the Sea), which ran through Galilee on its way from Damascus to Egypt. Another main road ran from Tiberias, near the Sea of Galilee, to Acco (Ptolemais), a port on the Phoenician coast. Major caravan routes also connected Galilee with the markets of the East. The area was tied together by a network of spurs and connecting roads that branched from the main highways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Inhabitants\">Inhabitants<\/p>\n<p>The occupants of Galilee (Galileans) were basically Jewish in religious and patriotic orientation, but they were composed of various ethnic elements. The influence of this mixture was sufficient to cause recognizable differences in speech from that of southern Palestine (cf. Mt 26:69, 73). The Galileans absorbed more Greek and Roman influences than did the Judean Jews. The racial mixture, differences in speech, and location caused Judean Jews to view Galilee and its inhabitants with contempt (Jn 1:46; 7:41, 52).<\/p>\n<p>Lower Galilee was densely settled with villages, and in NT times the population was probably about three million. The fertility of the soil and resultant fruitfulness of the country produced a prosperous Jewish populace, particularly in the centuries immediately after the time of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/p>\n<p>Galilee was under the Roman rule of emperors Augustus and Tiberius during the time of Christ. Roman fortifications throughout Galilee were a constant reminder of the presence and influence of the Roman Empire. During Christ’s ministry, Rome installed the tetrarch Herod Antipas (Mt 14:1; Lk 23:5-7) to rule the territory. He was appointed to office when 17 years old. Sepphoris was his first capital; in about <span>AD<\/span> 22 he built Tiberias on the shore of the Sea of Galilee as his new capital, in honor of the emperor.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Products\">Products<\/p>\n<p>Abundant crops enabled Galilee to provide produce for the neighboring Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon around the middle of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Main crops included grapes, pomegranates, olives, and grains. Fishing in the Sea of Galilee was a prominent business in NT times (Mk 1:14-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusandGalilee\">Jesus and Galilee<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was raised in Galilee (Lk 4:16), and 11 of his 12 disciples were from there (Judas Iscariot was the only Judean).<\/p>\n<p>The culture, commerce, farming, and fishing business of the area formed the background for much of Jesus’ ministry, as his parables show (Mt 20:1-8; 21:33; Mk 4:3; Lk 13:6-9). The first three Gospels are largely occupied with Christ’s ministry in Galilee, with much of it being spent around the Sea of Galilee. Most of his parables (19 of 32) were spoken here, and the vast majority of his miracles (25 of 33) were performed in Galilee. Jesus received his greatest response in this region. The Sermon on the Mount was spoken in Galilee, and one of its mountains was the scene of the Lord’s transfiguration. Many of the women who followed Christ and ministered to him also came from there (Mt 27:55). Two of Christ’s most significant postresurrection appearances took place in Galilee (Mt 28:16-20; Jn 21:1-23), and one of Christ’s own titles, Jesus of Nazareth (Jn 1:45), identified him as a Galilean.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galileans\">Galileans<\/p>\n<p>Since Jesus and most of the 12 disciples were from Galilee, it was natural for the term to be applied to all of his followers, especially since it implied that the movement was not as pure as Judean Judaism. Some interpreters believe that Luke 22:59 is an example of the use of “Galilean” as a title; in Acts 1:11 and 2:7 it is merely a geographical reference. One sure reference to Christians by that title appears in the work of the pagan philosopher Epictetus (<span>AD<\/span> 50?–135?), who was impressed with how Christians died for their faith. It is not clear how common the title of Galilean was, but it had obviously spread from Judea to Rome, where Epictetus lived.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Palestine; Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALILEE Area in northern Palestine that, in Israel’s earlier history, had boundaries that were not clearly defined but that became more precisely defined in the period of Roman rule. The English name Galilee comes from two Hebrew words meaning “circuit” or “district.” Historical Background In OT times Galilee was not significant in Israelite life, but in NT times it was a prominent Jewish population center. Galilee is first mentioned in the Bible as the location of Kedesh, a city of refuge in...","summary_en":"GALILEE Area in northern Palestine that, in Israel’s earlier history, had boundaries that were not clearly defined but that became more precisely defined in the period of Roman rule. The English name Galilee comes from two Hebrew words meaning “circuit” or “district.” Historical Background In OT times Galilee was not significant in Israelite life, but in NT times it was a prominent Jewish population center. Galilee is first mentioned in the Bible as the location of Kedesh, a city of refuge in...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27254,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Neiel","title_en":"Neiel","content_ro":"<h3>NEIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:27). Its site is perhaps identifiable with modern Khirbet Ya’nin, on the east end of the plain of Acco.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Border town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:27). Its site is perhaps identifiable with modern Khirbet Ya’nin, on the east end of the plain of Acco.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEIEL Border town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:27). Its site is perhaps identifiable with modern Khirbet Ya’nin, on the east end of the plain of Acco.","summary_en":"NEIEL Border town in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:27). Its site is perhaps identifiable with modern Khirbet Ya’nin, on the east end of the plain of Acco.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":85,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abdon (Place)","title_en":"Abdon (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>ABDON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of four cities in Asher’s territory given to the Levites after the conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land (Jos 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). Abdon is probably the same as Ebron (Jos 19:28). Today Abdon is called Khirbet ’Abdeh.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABDON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of four cities in Asher’s territory given to the Levites after the conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land (Jos 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). Abdon is probably the same as Ebron (Jos 19:28). Today Abdon is called Khirbet ’Abdeh.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABDON (Place) One of four cities in Asher’s territory given to the Levites after the conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land (Jos 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). Abdon is probably the same as Ebron (Jos 19:28). Today Abdon is called Khirbet ’Abdeh.","summary_en":"ABDON (Place) One of four cities in Asher’s territory given to the Levites after the conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land (Jos 21:30; 1 Chr 6:74). Abdon is probably the same as Ebron (Jos 19:28). Today Abdon is called Khirbet ’Abdeh.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6025,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cana","title_en":"Cana","content_ro":"<h3>CANA<\/h3>\n<p>Galilean town that was the scene of Jesus’ first miracle: changing water into wine at a wedding feast (Jn 2:1, 11). Jesus was again in Cana when he told a nobleman that his son, who was seriously ill at Capernaum, would live (Jn 4:46). Cana was also the home of Jesus’ disciple Nathanael (Jn 21:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the first Jewish rebellion, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, Cana was made headquarters for defending Galilee against the Romans. After the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, the town became the seat of the priestly family of Eliashib. John’s Gospel refers to it as “Cana of Galilee,” evidently to distinguish it from the Kanah located near the Phoenician city of Tyre (Jos 19:28). The traditional site of Cana, revered as such since Byzantine and medieval times, is Kefar Kana, about four miles (6.4 kilometers) east of Nazareth on the main road from Nazareth to Tiberias. Contemporary scholarship, however, has almost unanimously settled on Khirbet Kana as the site of NT Cana. That ruin is about eight miles (12.9 kilometers) north of Nazareth on the northern edge of the Battuf Plain. The Arabs of the region call it Cana of Galilee to this day. Archaeologists exploring at the site have found pottery from the Hebrew monarchy period (c. 900–600 <span>BC<\/span>) as well as from Hellenistic, Roman, Arabic, and Crusader times.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CANA<\/h3>\n<p>Galilean town that was the scene of Jesus’ first miracle: changing water into wine at a wedding feast (Jn 2:1, 11). Jesus was again in Cana when he told a nobleman that his son, who was seriously ill at Capernaum, would live (Jn 4:46). Cana was also the home of Jesus’ disciple Nathanael (Jn 21:2).<\/p>\n<p>During the first Jewish rebellion, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, Cana was made headquarters for defending Galilee against the Romans. After the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, the town became the seat of the priestly family of Eliashib. John’s Gospel refers to it as “Cana of Galilee,” evidently to distinguish it from the Kanah located near the Phoenician city of Tyre (Jos 19:28). The traditional site of Cana, revered as such since Byzantine and medieval times, is Kefar Kana, about four miles (6.4 kilometers) east of Nazareth on the main road from Nazareth to Tiberias. Contemporary scholarship, however, has almost unanimously settled on Khirbet Kana as the site of NT Cana. That ruin is about eight miles (12.9 kilometers) north of Nazareth on the northern edge of the Battuf Plain. The Arabs of the region call it Cana of Galilee to this day. Archaeologists exploring at the site have found pottery from the Hebrew monarchy period (c. 900–600 <span>BC<\/span>) as well as from Hellenistic, Roman, Arabic, and Crusader times.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CANA Galilean town that was the scene of Jesus’ first miracle: changing water into wine at a wedding feast (Jn 2:1, 11). Jesus was again in Cana when he told a nobleman that his son, who was seriously ill at Capernaum, would live (Jn 4:46). Cana was also the home of Jesus’ disciple Nathanael (Jn 21:2). During the first Jewish rebellion, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, Cana was made headquarters for defending Galilee against the Romans. After the destruction of Jerusal...","summary_en":"CANA Galilean town that was the scene of Jesus’ first miracle: changing water into wine at a wedding feast (Jn 2:1, 11). Jesus was again in Cana when he told a nobleman that his son, who was seriously ill at Capernaum, would live (Jn 4:46). Cana was also the home of Jesus’ disciple Nathanael (Jn 21:2). During the first Jewish rebellion, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, Cana was made headquarters for defending Galilee against the Romans. After the destruction of Jerusal...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10013,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ebron*","title_en":"Ebron*","content_ro":"<h3>EBRON*<\/h3>\n<p>Town belonging to Asher’s tribe, in Joshua 19:28, according to some Hebrew manuscripts. Other manuscripts read Abdon. It was a Levitical city located about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) south of Tyre and inland from Aczib on the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EBRON*<\/h3>\n<p>Town belonging to Asher’s tribe, in Joshua 19:28, according to some Hebrew manuscripts. Other manuscripts read Abdon. It was a Levitical city located about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) south of Tyre and inland from Aczib on the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EBRON* Town belonging to Asher’s tribe, in Joshua 19:28, according to some Hebrew manuscripts. Other manuscripts read Abdon. It was a Levitical city located about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) south of Tyre and inland from Aczib on the Mediterranean coast.","summary_en":"EBRON* Town belonging to Asher’s tribe, in Joshua 19:28, according to some Hebrew manuscripts. Other manuscripts read Abdon. It was a Levitical city located about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) south of Tyre and inland from Aczib on the Mediterranean coast.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15163,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hammon","title_en":"Hammon","content_ro":"<h3>HAMMON<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities of Asher mentioned in Joshua 19:28. It was somewhere south of Tyre on the western border of Asher.<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate name for Hammath in 1 Chronicles 6:76. <em>See<\/em> Hammath (Place).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HAMMON<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities of Asher mentioned in Joshua 19:28. It was somewhere south of Tyre on the western border of Asher.<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate name for Hammath in 1 Chronicles 6:76. <em>See<\/em> Hammath (Place).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HAMMON 1. One of the cities of Asher mentioned in Joshua 19:28. It was somewhere south of Tyre on the western border of Asher. 2. Alternate name for Hammath in 1 Chronicles 6:76. See Hammath (Place).","summary_en":"HAMMON 1. One of the cities of Asher mentioned in Joshua 19:28. It was somewhere south of Tyre on the western border of Asher. 2. Alternate name for Hammath in 1 Chronicles 6:76. See Hammath (Place).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16045,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hebron (Place)","title_en":"Hebron (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","summary_en":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20664,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21511,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kanah","title_en":"Kanah","content_ro":"<h3>KANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Brook forming Ephraim’s northern border and the southern border of Manasseh’s tribe (Jos 16:8; 17:9). It flowed westward, joining the Yarkon River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean just north of the modern city of Tel Aviv (biblical Joppa). It is dry most of the year. Kanah is today called Wadi Qana.<\/li>\n<li>2. City situated along Asher’s border (Jos 19:28). It lay about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Tyre on one of the major northeast-southwest routes through northern Galilee. Qana (in modern Lebanon) still bears the name and marks the site.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Brook forming Ephraim’s northern border and the southern border of Manasseh’s tribe (Jos 16:8; 17:9). It flowed westward, joining the Yarkon River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean just north of the modern city of Tel Aviv (biblical Joppa). It is dry most of the year. Kanah is today called Wadi Qana.<\/li>\n<li>2. City situated along Asher’s border (Jos 19:28). It lay about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Tyre on one of the major northeast-southwest routes through northern Galilee. Qana (in modern Lebanon) still bears the name and marks the site.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KANAH 1. Brook forming Ephraim’s northern border and the southern border of Manasseh’s tribe (Jos 16:8; 17:9). It flowed westward, joining the Yarkon River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean just north of the modern city of Tel Aviv (biblical Joppa). It is dry most of the year. Kanah is today called Wadi Qana. 2. City situated along Asher’s border (Jos 19:28). It lay about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Tyre on one of the major northeast-southwest routes through n...","summary_en":"KANAH 1. Brook forming Ephraim’s northern border and the southern border of Manasseh’s tribe (Jos 16:8; 17:9). It flowed westward, joining the Yarkon River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean just north of the modern city of Tel Aviv (biblical Joppa). It is dry most of the year. Kanah is today called Wadi Qana. 2. City situated along Asher’s border (Jos 19:28). It lay about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Tyre on one of the major northeast-southwest routes through n...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32623,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rehob (Place)","title_en":"Rehob (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>REHOB (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Northernmost territory explored by the Israelite spies prior to occupation of Canaan (Nm 13:21). It agrees with the location of Beth-rehob (Jgs 18:28) and is mentioned with Zobah and Maacah as an opponent of David in the Ammonite war (2 Sm 10:6-8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Two cities belonging to Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:28-30). One was given to the Levitical family of Gershon (Jos 21:31) and became a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:75). The other remained in Canaanite hands (Jgs 1:31). Some scholars identify the references as one city.<\/li>\n<li><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Levitical Cities.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REHOB (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Northernmost territory explored by the Israelite spies prior to occupation of Canaan (Nm 13:21). It agrees with the location of Beth-rehob (Jgs 18:28) and is mentioned with Zobah and Maacah as an opponent of David in the Ammonite war (2 Sm 10:6-8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Two cities belonging to Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:28-30). One was given to the Levitical family of Gershon (Jos 21:31) and became a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:75). The other remained in Canaanite hands (Jgs 1:31). Some scholars identify the references as one city.<\/li>\n<li><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Levitical Cities.<\/li>","summary_ro":"REHOB (Place) 1. Northernmost territory explored by the Israelite spies prior to occupation of Canaan (Nm 13:21). It agrees with the location of Beth-rehob (Jgs 18:28) and is mentioned with Zobah and Maacah as an opponent of David in the Ammonite war (2 Sm 10:6-8). 2. Two cities belonging to Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:28-30). One was given to the Levitical family of Gershon (Jos 21:31) and became a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:75). The other remained in Canaanite hands (Jgs 1:31). Some scholars identif...","summary_en":"REHOB (Place) 1. Northernmost territory explored by the Israelite spies prior to occupation of Canaan (Nm 13:21). It agrees with the location of Beth-rehob (Jgs 18:28) and is mentioned with Zobah and Maacah as an opponent of David in the Ammonite war (2 Sm 10:6-8). 2. Two cities belonging to Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:28-30). One was given to the Levitical family of Gershon (Jos 21:31) and became a city of refuge (1 Chr 6:75). The other remained in Canaanite hands (Jgs 1:31). Some scholars identif...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sidonian Sidon (Place)","title_en":"Sidonian Sidon (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN<\/h3>\n<p>City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn son of Canaan, who was a son of Ham. The territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza and east to the Cities of the Plain.<\/p>\n<p>Sidon is situated 22 miles (35.4 kilometers) north of Tyre, with which it is often associated (e.g., Is 23:1-2; Jer 47:4; Mt 11:21-22); both were much concerned with commerce and industry. Sidon was built on a headland that jutted into the sea toward the southwest. It had two harbors, the northern one having inner and outer ports. Sidon was also a center for the manufacture of the purple dye made from the Murex shellfish.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible mentions Sidon several times in connection with the conquest of Palestine. Joshua defeated the northern confederation under Jabin, king of Hazor, and pursued the enemy as far as “Great Sidon” (Jos 11:8). Joshua also stated that the land of Israel included all of Lebanon, “even all the Sidonians” (13:4-6). The tribal allotment of Asher extended as far north as “Sidon the Great” (19:28), but Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Sidon (Jgs 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>The gods of Sidon are listed among the foreign deities that Israel served (Jgs 10:6); David’s census included Sidon and Tyre (2 Sm 24:6-7); and during a famine in the time of Ahab, the prophet Elijah was sent to live at the home of a widow in Zarephath (Sarepta) in Sidon (1 Kgs 17:9; Lk 4:25-26). Sidon is referred to often by the Hebrew prophets (Is 23:2, 4, 12; Jer 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ez 27:8; Jl 3:4; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus healed the daughter of a woman of that area (Mt 15:21-28). People came from as far away as Tyre and Sidon to hear Jesus and to be healed by him (Lk 6:17). On Paul’s voyage to Rome to appear before Caesar, the ship made its first stop at Sidon, where the centurion, Julius, allowed Paul to go ashore to visit friends (Acts 27:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN<\/h3>\n<p>City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn son of Canaan, who was a son of Ham. The territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza and east to the Cities of the Plain.<\/p>\n<p>Sidon is situated 22 miles (35.4 kilometers) north of Tyre, with which it is often associated (e.g., Is 23:1-2; Jer 47:4; Mt 11:21-22); both were much concerned with commerce and industry. Sidon was built on a headland that jutted into the sea toward the southwest. It had two harbors, the northern one having inner and outer ports. Sidon was also a center for the manufacture of the purple dye made from the Murex shellfish.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible mentions Sidon several times in connection with the conquest of Palestine. Joshua defeated the northern confederation under Jabin, king of Hazor, and pursued the enemy as far as “Great Sidon” (Jos 11:8). Joshua also stated that the land of Israel included all of Lebanon, “even all the Sidonians” (13:4-6). The tribal allotment of Asher extended as far north as “Sidon the Great” (19:28), but Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Sidon (Jgs 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>The gods of Sidon are listed among the foreign deities that Israel served (Jgs 10:6); David’s census included Sidon and Tyre (2 Sm 24:6-7); and during a famine in the time of Ahab, the prophet Elijah was sent to live at the home of a widow in Zarephath (Sarepta) in Sidon (1 Kgs 17:9; Lk 4:25-26). Sidon is referred to often by the Hebrew prophets (Is 23:2, 4, 12; Jer 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ez 27:8; Jl 3:4; Zec 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus healed the daughter of a woman of that area (Mt 15:21-28). People came from as far away as Tyre and Sidon to hear Jesus and to be healed by him (Lk 6:17). On Paul’s voyage to Rome to appear before Caesar, the ship made its first stop at Sidon, where the centurion, Julius, allowed Paul to go ashore to visit friends (Acts 27:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the kjv. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT. The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn ...","summary_en":"SIDON (Place), SIDONIAN City on the Phoenician coast, between Beirut and Tyre; frequently called Zidon in the kjv. The present town, Saida, is not regarded as a direct continuation of the ancient city but rather a development of post-Crusader times. The names Sidon and Sidonian appear 38 times in the OT, and Sidon occurs 12 times in the NT. The relative antiquity of Byblos (Gebal, Jebeil), Tyre, and Sidon may be determined by the “table of nations” (Gn 10), which names Sidon as the firstborn ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":451,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aczib","title_en":"Aczib","content_ro":"<h3>ACZIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ACZIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ACZIB 1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22). 2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries BC.","summary_en":"ACZIB 1. City in Judah’s territory (Jos 15:44). The prophet Micah listed it among cities that would be destroyed with Samaria (Mi 1:14). It was probably the same as Chezib (Gn 38:5) and Cozeba (1 Chr 4:22). 2. City in Asher’s territory (Jos 19:29), one of seven from which the tribe failed to drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Jgs 1:31). Recent excavations at Aczib (modern ez-Zib) show that the town was occupied almost continuously from the ninth to the third centuries BC.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":964,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ahlab","title_en":"Ahlab","content_ro":"<h3>AHLAB<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city in Asher’s territory. The Israelites failed to drive out its inhabitants in their conquest of Canaan (Jgs 1:31). It probably is identical with Mahalab in Joshua 19:29, modern Khirbet el-Mahalib near Tyre. <em>See<\/em> Mahalab.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AHLAB<\/h3>\n<p>Canaanite city in Asher’s territory. The Israelites failed to drive out its inhabitants in their conquest of Canaan (Jgs 1:31). It probably is identical with Mahalab in Joshua 19:29, modern Khirbet el-Mahalib near Tyre. <em>See<\/em> Mahalab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AHLAB Canaanite city in Asher’s territory. The Israelites failed to drive out its inhabitants in their conquest of Canaan (Jgs 1:31). It probably is identical with Mahalab in Joshua 19:29, modern Khirbet el-Mahalib near Tyre. See Mahalab.","summary_en":"AHLAB Canaanite city in Asher’s territory. The Israelites failed to drive out its inhabitants in their conquest of Canaan (Jgs 1:31). It probably is identical with Mahalab in Joshua 19:29, modern Khirbet el-Mahalib near Tyre. See Mahalab.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16707,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hosah (Place)","title_en":"Hosah (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HOSAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City south of Tyre on Asher’s border (Jos 19:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City south of Tyre on Asher’s border (Jos 19:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSAH (Place) City south of Tyre on Asher’s border (Jos 19:29).","summary_en":"HOSAH (Place) City south of Tyre on Asher’s border (Jos 19:29).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23920,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mahalab*","title_en":"Mahalab*","content_ro":"<h3>MAHALAB*<\/h3>\n<p>Reconstructed name of a town in Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:29, <span>nlt<\/span> “Mehebel”); the Hebrew text has a transposition of the last two consonants, but the town is probably the same as Ahlab and Helbah of Judges 1:31. The correct name is preserved in the Assyrian annals of Sennacherib as Mahalliba; another text has Mahalab. The town is sometimes identified with Khirbet el-Mahalib, northeast of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ahlab.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAHALAB*<\/h3>\n<p>Reconstructed name of a town in Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:29, <span>nlt<\/span> “Mehebel”); the Hebrew text has a transposition of the last two consonants, but the town is probably the same as Ahlab and Helbah of Judges 1:31. The correct name is preserved in the Assyrian annals of Sennacherib as Mahalliba; another text has Mahalab. The town is sometimes identified with Khirbet el-Mahalib, northeast of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ahlab.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAHALAB* Reconstructed name of a town in Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:29, nlt “Mehebel”); the Hebrew text has a transposition of the last two consonants, but the town is probably the same as Ahlab and Helbah of Judges 1:31. The correct name is preserved in the Assyrian annals of Sennacherib as Mahalliba; another text has Mahalab. The town is sometimes identified with Khirbet el-Mahalib, northeast of Tyre. See also Ahlab.","summary_en":"MAHALAB* Reconstructed name of a town in Asher’s tribe (Jos 19:29, nlt “Mehebel”); the Hebrew text has a transposition of the last two consonants, but the town is probably the same as Ahlab and Helbah of Judges 1:31. The correct name is preserved in the Assyrian annals of Sennacherib as Mahalliba; another text has Mahalab. The town is sometimes identified with Khirbet el-Mahalib, northeast of Tyre. See also Ahlab.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32369,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37792,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tyre","title_en":"Tyre","content_ro":"<h3>TYRE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyptian citation from the same period. Tyre first appears in the Bible in the list of cities that comprised Asher’s inheritance (Jos 19:29). At that time, it was described as a “strong city” and was evidently never conquered by the Israelites (2 Sm 24:7). Tyre was most significant as a mercantile center, with maritime contacts throughout the Mediterranean region and overland traffic with Mesopotamia and Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>During David’s and Solomon’s monarchies, Tyre was a strong commercial ally of Israel. Both David and Solomon contracted with Hiram of Tyre for timber, building materials, and skilled laborers, for which they provided Tyre with agriculture produce (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1-11; 1 Chr 14:1; 2 Chr 2:3-16). After the division of the kingdom, Tyre evidently maintained friendly relations with Israel for some time. Ahab’s wife, Jezebel, was the daughter of “Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians,” a king who is known elsewhere as Ithobal of Tyre (1 Kgs 16:31; cf. Menander). At some point, however, the pressure of Assyrian and Babylonian aggression dissolved the alliance, so that by the time of Samaria’s fall, Tyre and Israel were no longer aligned and shortly thereafter became enemies.<\/p>\n<p>During the later kingdom period, Tyre was the focus for some of the strongest prophetic denunciations recorded in Scripture (Is 23:1-18; Jer 25:22; 27:1-11; Ez 26:1-19; Jl 3:4-8; Am 1:9-10). Tyre’s condemnation was justified for several reasons. Because of its commercial significance, Tyre was the focal point of Assyrian and Egyptian rivalries. Tyre managed, however, to play these rivals against each other while building its wealth and exploiting its neighbors. Additionally, the city of Tyre was not only a city of unscrupulous merchants but also a center of religious idolatry and sexual immorality. Foremost among Tyre’s sins was pride induced by its great wealth and strategic location. Ezekiel’s prophecy against Tyre offers a detailed picture of the city, its commercial empire, its sin, and its eventual demise (Ez 26:1-28; 29:18-20). The final destruction of Tyre did not come for almost 1,900 years (<span>AD<\/span> 1291), though it was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar for 13 years (587–574 <span>BC<\/span>), and conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 <span>BC<\/span> after a seven-month siege, during which he built a causeway out to the island. Ezekiel’s description of Tyre’s arrogance can be compared to that of Satan’s, with Tyre’s words “I am a God, I sit in the seat of God” (<span>kjv<\/span>) being the expression that led to the fall of both Satan and Tyre (Ez 28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Despite Alexander’s destruction of the city, Tyre had regained prominence by the NT period, being equal to or greater than Jerusalem in terms of population and commercial power. Jesus visited the region surrounding Tyre during his early ministry, healing the Syrophoenician woman’s daughter (Mt 15:21-28; Mk 7:24-31). Jesus also compared the Galilean towns that had rejected him to Tyre and Sidon, suggesting that the Galileans would bear greater responsibility for their rejection because of the number of miracles he had performed among them (Lk 10:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TYRE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyptian citation from the same period. Tyre first appears in the Bible in the list of cities that comprised Asher’s inheritance (Jos 19:29). At that time, it was described as a “strong city” and was evidently never conquered by the Israelites (2 Sm 24:7). Tyre was most significant as a mercantile center, with maritime contacts throughout the Mediterranean region and overland traffic with Mesopotamia and Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>During David’s and Solomon’s monarchies, Tyre was a strong commercial ally of Israel. Both David and Solomon contracted with Hiram of Tyre for timber, building materials, and skilled laborers, for which they provided Tyre with agriculture produce (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1-11; 1 Chr 14:1; 2 Chr 2:3-16). After the division of the kingdom, Tyre evidently maintained friendly relations with Israel for some time. Ahab’s wife, Jezebel, was the daughter of “Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians,” a king who is known elsewhere as Ithobal of Tyre (1 Kgs 16:31; cf. Menander). At some point, however, the pressure of Assyrian and Babylonian aggression dissolved the alliance, so that by the time of Samaria’s fall, Tyre and Israel were no longer aligned and shortly thereafter became enemies.<\/p>\n<p>During the later kingdom period, Tyre was the focus for some of the strongest prophetic denunciations recorded in Scripture (Is 23:1-18; Jer 25:22; 27:1-11; Ez 26:1-19; Jl 3:4-8; Am 1:9-10). Tyre’s condemnation was justified for several reasons. Because of its commercial significance, Tyre was the focal point of Assyrian and Egyptian rivalries. Tyre managed, however, to play these rivals against each other while building its wealth and exploiting its neighbors. Additionally, the city of Tyre was not only a city of unscrupulous merchants but also a center of religious idolatry and sexual immorality. Foremost among Tyre’s sins was pride induced by its great wealth and strategic location. Ezekiel’s prophecy against Tyre offers a detailed picture of the city, its commercial empire, its sin, and its eventual demise (Ez 26:1-28; 29:18-20). The final destruction of Tyre did not come for almost 1,900 years (<span>AD<\/span> 1291), though it was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar for 13 years (587–574 <span>BC<\/span>), and conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 <span>BC<\/span> after a seven-month siege, during which he built a causeway out to the island. Ezekiel’s description of Tyre’s arrogance can be compared to that of Satan’s, with Tyre’s words “I am a God, I sit in the seat of God” (<span>kjv<\/span>) being the expression that led to the fall of both Satan and Tyre (Ez 28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Despite Alexander’s destruction of the city, Tyre had regained prominence by the NT period, being equal to or greater than Jerusalem in terms of population and commercial power. Jesus visited the region surrounding Tyre during his early ministry, healing the Syrophoenician woman’s daughter (Mt 15:21-28; Mk 7:24-31). Jesus also compared the Galilean towns that had rejected him to Tyre and Sidon, suggesting that the Galileans would bear greater responsibility for their rejection because of the number of miracles he had performed among them (Lk 10:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TYRE Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 BC. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyp...","summary_en":"TYRE Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 BC. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyp...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":2261,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aphek","title_en":"Aphek","content_ro":"<h3>APHEK<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antipatris.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campaigns (Jos 13:4). This Aphek was probably located near the source of the river Ibrahim, east of Byblos.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town given to Asher’s tribe in the distribution of conquered cities (Jos 19:30). Asher’s tribe failed to drive out the pagan inhabitants (Jgs 1:31, where it is spelled “Aphik”). Aphek was located on the plain of Acco, at the present site of Tell Kurdaneh near the source of the river Na’main.<\/li>\n<li>4. City east of the Jordan River, on the main highway between Damascus and the valley of Jezreel. The Syrian king Ben-hadad, defeated by King Ahab of Israel, retreated into Aphek, where a falling wall demolished the rest of his army (1 Kgs 20:26, 30). A century later Elisha prophesied to King Joash of Israel that he would defeat the Syrians in the same city (2 Kgs 13:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>APHEK<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antipatris.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campaigns (Jos 13:4). This Aphek was probably located near the source of the river Ibrahim, east of Byblos.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town given to Asher’s tribe in the distribution of conquered cities (Jos 19:30). Asher’s tribe failed to drive out the pagan inhabitants (Jgs 1:31, where it is spelled “Aphik”). Aphek was located on the plain of Acco, at the present site of Tell Kurdaneh near the source of the river Na’main.<\/li>\n<li>4. City east of the Jordan River, on the main highway between Damascus and the valley of Jezreel. The Syrian king Ben-hadad, defeated by King Ahab of Israel, retreated into Aphek, where a falling wall demolished the rest of his army (1 Kgs 20:26, 30). A century later Elisha prophesied to King Joash of Israel that he would defeat the Syrians in the same city (2 Kgs 13:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"APHEK 1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain. See also Antipatris. 2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campa...","summary_en":"APHEK 1. Canaanite city west of the Jordan River conquered by Israel (Jos 12:18) and later included in Ephraim’s territory. It was located near the source of the Yarkon River in the plain of Sharon. Aphek was later captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4:1; 29:1). In Roman times Herod the Great rebuilt the city and named it Antipatris, mentioned in Acts 23:31. Its modern name is Ras el-‘Ain. See also Antipatris. 2. Place in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) that remained unconquered after Joshua’s campa...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37818,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ummah","title_en":"Ummah","content_ro":"<h3>UMMAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the villages inherited by Asher’s tribe after the conquest of Canaan (Jos 19:30). Neither the location of Ummah nor the accompanying villages (Aphek and Rehob) are known.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>UMMAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the villages inherited by Asher’s tribe after the conquest of Canaan (Jos 19:30). Neither the location of Ummah nor the accompanying villages (Aphek and Rehob) are known.<\/p>","summary_ro":"UMMAH One of the villages inherited by Asher’s tribe after the conquest of Canaan (Jos 19:30). Neither the location of Ummah nor the accompanying villages (Aphek and Rehob) are known.","summary_en":"UMMAH One of the villages inherited by Asher’s tribe after the conquest of Canaan (Jos 19:30). Neither the location of Ummah nor the accompanying villages (Aphek and Rehob) are known.","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45575,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","summary_en":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73201,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","summary_en":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100827,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","summary_en":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128453,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:30","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:30<\/strong> The <em>twenty-two towns<\/em> did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","summary_en":"19:30 The twenty-two towns did not include Tyre and Sidon, which the nation of Israel never controlled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":8482,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dan (Person)","title_en":"Dan (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth son of the Jewish patriarch Jacob. Dan’s mother was Bilhah, maid of Jacob’s wife Rachel (Gn 30:1-6). Dan’s descendants settled in Israel overlooking the Huleh Plain, in territory actually assigned to Naphtali, Dan’s full brother (Gn 30:7-8; 35:25; Jos 19:32-48). The two brothers are mentioned together in a number of references (e.g., Ex 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Dan’s name was given to him not by Bilhah but by Rachel, who considered the child her own. Rachel had long been childless—a shame to women in ancient cultures—and she was jealous of Jacob’s other wife, Leah, who had already borne him four sons. Rachel viewed the birth of Bilhah’s son as averting her shame and as God’s vindication of her status as wife. The name Dan (“he judged”) meant that God had judged her and had vindicated her through the child’s birth (Gn 30:6).<\/p>\n<p>Evidently Dan had only one son to continue his line, Hushim (Gn 46:23; “Shuham,” Nm 26:42-43). In Jacob’s patriarchal blessing, Dan was promised the role of “judge” among his people but was also spoken of as one who would be stealthy and dangerous, like a serpent (Gn 49:16-17). How that blessing worked out in the life of his descendants is unknown. The small amount of information given about Dan himself parallels the insignificance of his tribe in later times.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dan (Place); Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth son of the Jewish patriarch Jacob. Dan’s mother was Bilhah, maid of Jacob’s wife Rachel (Gn 30:1-6). Dan’s descendants settled in Israel overlooking the Huleh Plain, in territory actually assigned to Naphtali, Dan’s full brother (Gn 30:7-8; 35:25; Jos 19:32-48). The two brothers are mentioned together in a number of references (e.g., Ex 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Dan’s name was given to him not by Bilhah but by Rachel, who considered the child her own. Rachel had long been childless—a shame to women in ancient cultures—and she was jealous of Jacob’s other wife, Leah, who had already borne him four sons. Rachel viewed the birth of Bilhah’s son as averting her shame and as God’s vindication of her status as wife. The name Dan (“he judged”) meant that God had judged her and had vindicated her through the child’s birth (Gn 30:6).<\/p>\n<p>Evidently Dan had only one son to continue his line, Hushim (Gn 46:23; “Shuham,” Nm 26:42-43). In Jacob’s patriarchal blessing, Dan was promised the role of “judge” among his people but was also spoken of as one who would be stealthy and dangerous, like a serpent (Gn 49:16-17). How that blessing worked out in the life of his descendants is unknown. The small amount of information given about Dan himself parallels the insignificance of his tribe in later times.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dan (Place); Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAN (Person) Fifth son of the Jewish patriarch Jacob. Dan’s mother was Bilhah, maid of Jacob’s wife Rachel (Gn 30:1-6). Dan’s descendants settled in Israel overlooking the Huleh Plain, in territory actually assigned to Naphtali, Dan’s full brother (Gn 30:7-8; 35:25; Jos 19:32-48). The two brothers are mentioned together in a number of references (e.g., Ex 1:4). Dan’s name was given to him not by Bilhah but by Rachel, who considered the child her own. Rachel had long been childless—a shame to ...","summary_en":"DAN (Person) Fifth son of the Jewish patriarch Jacob. Dan’s mother was Bilhah, maid of Jacob’s wife Rachel (Gn 30:1-6). Dan’s descendants settled in Israel overlooking the Huleh Plain, in territory actually assigned to Naphtali, Dan’s full brother (Gn 30:7-8; 35:25; Jos 19:32-48). The two brothers are mentioned together in a number of references (e.g., Ex 1:4). Dan’s name was given to him not by Bilhah but by Rachel, who considered the child her own. Rachel had long been childless—a shame to ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20850,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45576,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:32","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","summary_en":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73202,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:32","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","summary_en":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100828,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:32","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","summary_en":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128454,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:32","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:32-39<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Naphtali<\/em> occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of <em>Hazor<\/em> was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","summary_en":"19:32-39 The tribe of Naphtali occupied eastern Galilee and overlooked the Sea of Galilee. Because a branch of an international trade route from Egypt to Mesopotamia ran through the territory of Naphtali, this tribe enjoyed periods of prosperity when Israel’s kings were strong. The city of Hazor was within Naphtali’s territory, guarding a section of that route. Naphtali is mentioned in Matt 4:13-16 in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":563,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adami*, Adami-Nekeb","title_en":"Adami*, Adami-Nekeb","content_ro":"<h3>ADAMI*, ADAMI-NEKEB<\/h3>\n<p>Names of a city located near the southern border of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:33), although the <span>kjv<\/span> lists it as two cities. Adami-nekeb is usually identified as modern Khirbet ed-Damiyeh.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADAMI*, ADAMI-NEKEB<\/h3>\n<p>Names of a city located near the southern border of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:33), although the <span>kjv<\/span> lists it as two cities. Adami-nekeb is usually identified as modern Khirbet ed-Damiyeh.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADAMI*, ADAMI-NEKEB Names of a city located near the southern border of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:33), although the kjv lists it as two cities. Adami-nekeb is usually identified as modern Khirbet ed-Damiyeh.","summary_en":"ADAMI*, ADAMI-NEKEB Names of a city located near the southern border of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:33), although the kjv lists it as two cities. Adami-nekeb is usually identified as modern Khirbet ed-Damiyeh.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1092,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Allon* (Place)","title_en":"Allon* (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>ALLON* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Landmark oak tree in Naphtali’s territory, considered in some translations to be the name of a town (Jos 19:33, <span>kjv<\/span>). The <span>nlt<\/span> better reads “the oak at Zaanannim.” <em>See<\/em> Zaanannim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALLON* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Landmark oak tree in Naphtali’s territory, considered in some translations to be the name of a town (Jos 19:33, <span>kjv<\/span>). The <span>nlt<\/span> better reads “the oak at Zaanannim.” <em>See<\/em> Zaanannim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALLON* (Place) Landmark oak tree in Naphtali’s territory, considered in some translations to be the name of a town (Jos 19:33, kjv). The nlt better reads “the oak at Zaanannim.” See Zaanannim.","summary_en":"ALLON* (Place) Landmark oak tree in Naphtali’s territory, considered in some translations to be the name of a town (Jos 19:33, kjv). The nlt better reads “the oak at Zaanannim.” See Zaanannim.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heleph","title_en":"Heleph","content_ro":"<h3>HELEPH<\/h3>\n<p>Village on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33), northeast of Mt Tabor. Its site may be modern Khirbet ‘Arbathah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELEPH<\/h3>\n<p>Village on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33), northeast of Mt Tabor. Its site may be modern Khirbet ‘Arbathah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELEPH Village on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33), northeast of Mt Tabor. Its site may be modern Khirbet ‘Arbathah.","summary_en":"HELEPH Village on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33), northeast of Mt Tabor. Its site may be modern Khirbet ‘Arbathah.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18200,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jabneel","title_en":"Jabneel","content_ro":"<h3>JABNEEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Alternate name for the town Jabneh in Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:11). <em>See<\/em> Jabneh.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town of Galilee near Tiberias, on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33). It was located south of modern Jabneel.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JABNEEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Alternate name for the town Jabneh in Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:11). <em>See<\/em> Jabneh.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town of Galilee near Tiberias, on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33). It was located south of modern Jabneel.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JABNEEL 1. Alternate name for the town Jabneh in Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:11). See Jabneh. 2. Town of Galilee near Tiberias, on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33). It was located south of modern Jabneel.","summary_en":"JABNEEL 1. Alternate name for the town Jabneh in Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:11). See Jabneh. 2. Town of Galilee near Tiberias, on Naphtali’s southern border (Jos 19:33). It was located south of modern Jabneel.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22418,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lakkum, Lakum*","title_en":"Lakkum, Lakum*","content_ro":"<h3>LAKKUM, LAKUM*<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified border town within the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33). Its site is identifiable with Khirbet el-Mansurah, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southwest of Khirbet Kerak, at the head of Wadi Fejjas.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAKKUM, LAKUM*<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified border town within the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33). Its site is identifiable with Khirbet el-Mansurah, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southwest of Khirbet Kerak, at the head of Wadi Fejjas.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAKKUM, LAKUM* Fortified border town within the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33). Its site is identifiable with Khirbet el-Mansurah, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southwest of Khirbet Kerak, at the head of Wadi Fejjas.","summary_en":"LAKKUM, LAKUM* Fortified border town within the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33). Its site is identifiable with Khirbet el-Mansurah, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southwest of Khirbet Kerak, at the head of Wadi Fejjas.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27299,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nekeb*","title_en":"Nekeb*","content_ro":"<h3>NEKEB*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a town defining the boundary of the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance, positioned between Za-anannim and Jabneel (Jos 19:33). <em>See<\/em> Adami, Adami-nekeb.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEKEB*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a town defining the boundary of the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance, positioned between Za-anannim and Jabneel (Jos 19:33). <em>See<\/em> Adami, Adami-nekeb.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEKEB* KJV rendering of a town defining the boundary of the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance, positioned between Za-anannim and Jabneel (Jos 19:33). See Adami, Adami-nekeb.","summary_en":"NEKEB* KJV rendering of a town defining the boundary of the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance, positioned between Za-anannim and Jabneel (Jos 19:33). See Adami, Adami-nekeb.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28002,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oak of Zaanannim","title_en":"Oak of Zaanannim","content_ro":"<h3>OAK OF ZAANANNIM<\/h3>\n<p>Site regarded as a border point in the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33; Jgs 4:11). <em>See<\/em> Zaanannim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OAK OF ZAANANNIM<\/h3>\n<p>Site regarded as a border point in the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33; Jgs 4:11). <em>See<\/em> Zaanannim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OAK OF ZAANANNIM Site regarded as a border point in the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33; Jgs 4:11). See Zaanannim.","summary_en":"OAK OF ZAANANNIM Site regarded as a border point in the territory of Naphtali (Jos 19:33; Jgs 4:11). See Zaanannim.","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38817,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaanannim","title_en":"Zaanannim","content_ro":"<h3>ZAANANNIM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the markers of the border of Naphtali listed between Heleph and Adami-nekeb (Jos 19:33). Judges 4:11 puts it near Kedesh. There Sisera took refuge in the tent of Heber the Kenite and was killed by Jael (vv 11-21). While the precise location is not known, it was west of Lake el-Huleh (modern Merom) in a region that was probably marshy in ancient times. Though the <span>kjv<\/span> translates the text as “plain of Zaanaim,” it is more likely “Oak of Zaanannim” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). Since many terebinth trees are located in the region, the text is probably referring to a terebinth set aside as a sacred tree.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZAANANNIM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the markers of the border of Naphtali listed between Heleph and Adami-nekeb (Jos 19:33). Judges 4:11 puts it near Kedesh. There Sisera took refuge in the tent of Heber the Kenite and was killed by Jael (vv 11-21). While the precise location is not known, it was west of Lake el-Huleh (modern Merom) in a region that was probably marshy in ancient times. Though the <span>kjv<\/span> translates the text as “plain of Zaanaim,” it is more likely “Oak of Zaanannim” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). Since many terebinth trees are located in the region, the text is probably referring to a terebinth set aside as a sacred tree.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZAANANNIM One of the markers of the border of Naphtali listed between Heleph and Adami-nekeb (Jos 19:33). Judges 4:11 puts it near Kedesh. There Sisera took refuge in the tent of Heber the Kenite and was killed by Jael (vv 11-21). While the precise location is not known, it was west of Lake el-Huleh (modern Merom) in a region that was probably marshy in ancient times. Though the kjv translates the text as “plain of Zaanaim,” it is more likely “Oak of Zaanannim” (rsv, niv, nlt). Since many ter...","summary_en":"ZAANANNIM One of the markers of the border of Naphtali listed between Heleph and Adami-nekeb (Jos 19:33). Judges 4:11 puts it near Kedesh. There Sisera took refuge in the tent of Heber the Kenite and was killed by Jael (vv 11-21). While the precise location is not known, it was west of Lake el-Huleh (modern Merom) in a region that was probably marshy in ancient times. Though the kjv translates the text as “plain of Zaanaim,” it is more likely “Oak of Zaanannim” (rsv, niv, nlt). Since many ter...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":3332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aznoth-Tabor","title_en":"Aznoth-Tabor","content_ro":"<h3>AZNOTH-TABOR<\/h3>\n<p>Literally the “peaks (or slopes) of Tabor,” a location on the southwest border of Naphtali’s tribal allotment (Jos 19:34).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AZNOTH-TABOR<\/h3>\n<p>Literally the “peaks (or slopes) of Tabor,” a location on the southwest border of Naphtali’s tribal allotment (Jos 19:34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"AZNOTH-TABOR Literally the “peaks (or slopes) of Tabor,” a location on the southwest border of Naphtali’s tribal allotment (Jos 19:34).","summary_en":"AZNOTH-TABOR Literally the “peaks (or slopes) of Tabor,” a location on the southwest border of Naphtali’s tribal allotment (Jos 19:34).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16927,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hukkok","title_en":"Hukkok","content_ro":"<h3>HUKKOK<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Naphtali and Zebulun’s boundary, listed next to Aznoth-tabor (Jos 19:34). It has been identified with Yaquaq, northwest of Gennesaret.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HUKKOK<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Naphtali and Zebulun’s boundary, listed next to Aznoth-tabor (Jos 19:34). It has been identified with Yaquaq, northwest of Gennesaret.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HUKKOK Town near Naphtali and Zebulun’s boundary, listed next to Aznoth-tabor (Jos 19:34). It has been identified with Yaquaq, northwest of Gennesaret.","summary_en":"HUKKOK Town near Naphtali and Zebulun’s boundary, listed next to Aznoth-tabor (Jos 19:34). It has been identified with Yaquaq, northwest of Gennesaret.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26973,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Naphtali","title_en":"Tribe of Naphtali","content_ro":"<h3>NAPHTALI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel that migrated from Egypt to Canaan, ultimately settling in northern Canaan in the high country of Galilee.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, Naphtali’s tribe is mentioned only incidentally. Acting as the leader of the tribe, Ahira, Enan’s son (Nm 2:29; 7:28), helped conduct the census of Naphtali (1:15) as Israel prepared for the prospect of war. The first census records 53,400 men ready for war (vv 42-43), whereas a later census taken near the end of their desert sojourning records 45,400 men capable of battle (26:48). When Moses sent the 12 spies to search out the land of Canaan, Nahbi, Vophsi’s son, represented Naphtali’s tribe (13:14). Other significant activities involving Naphtali’s tribe during the wilderness wanderings include the position of encampment around the tabernacle while in the desert (2:29); the distribution of the land, in which Pedahel, Ammihud’s son, represented Naphtali in the ceremony of choosing lots (34:28); and the ratification of the covenant at Shechem (Dt 27:13). Finally, like the rest of the tribes, Naphtali was the recipient of a blessing from Moses (Dt 33:23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribal inheritance of Naphtali was located on the eastern side of upper Galilee, bordered on the south by Zebulun and by Asher on the west (Jos 19:34). Within its borders were several Levitical cities (Jos 21:6; 1 Chr 6:62) and a city of refuge, Kedesh (Jos 20:7; 1 Chr 6:76). Though they successfully occupied the region, they did not initially drive out the Canaanites (Jgs 1:33). They did, however, subjugate the inhabitants of the Canaanite cities Beth-shemesh and Beth-anath to forced labor. As a result of their location, they were involved in some major conflicts with the indigenous population and foreign invaders. The most significant of these was the war with Jabin, king of Hazor. Barak, son of Abinoam, from Kedesh in Naphtali joined Deborah, the prophetess, and together they led the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali against the Canaanites (chs 4–5). Along with the tribes of Asher, Zebulun, and Manasseh, the tribe of Naphtali was also called by Gideon into battle against the Midianites (6:35).<\/p>\n<p>During the united monarchy, the tribe of Naphtali sent troops to Hebron, demonstrating their support of David’s kingship over all of Israel (1 Chr 12:34). Naphtali’s continued allegiance to the Davidic dynasty was evidenced in their support of Solomon’s administrative system. Ahimaaz of Naphtali’s tribe was one of 12 officers who administered the various regional districts for the king; this same Ahimaaz also married Basemath, the daughter of Solomon (1 Kgs 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The history of the tribe during the divided monarchy is sketchy, and references to Naphtali occur in the contexts of military conflicts. During the reign of Asa in Judah, Baasha, king of Israel, sought to build a fortress at Ramah on the central Benjamite plateau. Feeling threatened, Asa encouraged Ben-hadad of Syria to attack the northern kingdom. The Syrian monarch complied, and the brunt of his attack was felt by Naphtali’s tribe (1 Kgs 15:16-24). Baasha withdrew his troops from the Benjamite plateau only to encounter the powerful onslaught of the Syrian army. The other major foreign power to exert its influence in the region of Naphtali was Assyria, particularly during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III. During the rule of Pekah in Israel and Rezon in Syria, this Assyrian monarch came and captured Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali (2 Kgs 15:29) in 732 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>According to the prophet Isaiah (Is 9:1), though the Lord had made Naphtali’s land contemptible, he would make it glorious once again. Matthew sees the fulfillment of this prophecy in the person of Christ, who brought the message of God’s kingdom to the Jews living in the region of Naphtali’s tribe (Mt 4:13-15). In the book of Revelation (Rv 7:6), 12,000 members of Naphtali’s tribe are included among the sealed multitude of Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAPHTALI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel that migrated from Egypt to Canaan, ultimately settling in northern Canaan in the high country of Galilee.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, Naphtali’s tribe is mentioned only incidentally. Acting as the leader of the tribe, Ahira, Enan’s son (Nm 2:29; 7:28), helped conduct the census of Naphtali (1:15) as Israel prepared for the prospect of war. The first census records 53,400 men ready for war (vv 42-43), whereas a later census taken near the end of their desert sojourning records 45,400 men capable of battle (26:48). When Moses sent the 12 spies to search out the land of Canaan, Nahbi, Vophsi’s son, represented Naphtali’s tribe (13:14). Other significant activities involving Naphtali’s tribe during the wilderness wanderings include the position of encampment around the tabernacle while in the desert (2:29); the distribution of the land, in which Pedahel, Ammihud’s son, represented Naphtali in the ceremony of choosing lots (34:28); and the ratification of the covenant at Shechem (Dt 27:13). Finally, like the rest of the tribes, Naphtali was the recipient of a blessing from Moses (Dt 33:23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribal inheritance of Naphtali was located on the eastern side of upper Galilee, bordered on the south by Zebulun and by Asher on the west (Jos 19:34). Within its borders were several Levitical cities (Jos 21:6; 1 Chr 6:62) and a city of refuge, Kedesh (Jos 20:7; 1 Chr 6:76). Though they successfully occupied the region, they did not initially drive out the Canaanites (Jgs 1:33). They did, however, subjugate the inhabitants of the Canaanite cities Beth-shemesh and Beth-anath to forced labor. As a result of their location, they were involved in some major conflicts with the indigenous population and foreign invaders. The most significant of these was the war with Jabin, king of Hazor. Barak, son of Abinoam, from Kedesh in Naphtali joined Deborah, the prophetess, and together they led the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali against the Canaanites (chs 4–5). Along with the tribes of Asher, Zebulun, and Manasseh, the tribe of Naphtali was also called by Gideon into battle against the Midianites (6:35).<\/p>\n<p>During the united monarchy, the tribe of Naphtali sent troops to Hebron, demonstrating their support of David’s kingship over all of Israel (1 Chr 12:34). Naphtali’s continued allegiance to the Davidic dynasty was evidenced in their support of Solomon’s administrative system. Ahimaaz of Naphtali’s tribe was one of 12 officers who administered the various regional districts for the king; this same Ahimaaz also married Basemath, the daughter of Solomon (1 Kgs 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The history of the tribe during the divided monarchy is sketchy, and references to Naphtali occur in the contexts of military conflicts. During the reign of Asa in Judah, Baasha, king of Israel, sought to build a fortress at Ramah on the central Benjamite plateau. Feeling threatened, Asa encouraged Ben-hadad of Syria to attack the northern kingdom. The Syrian monarch complied, and the brunt of his attack was felt by Naphtali’s tribe (1 Kgs 15:16-24). Baasha withdrew his troops from the Benjamite plateau only to encounter the powerful onslaught of the Syrian army. The other major foreign power to exert its influence in the region of Naphtali was Assyria, particularly during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III. During the rule of Pekah in Israel and Rezon in Syria, this Assyrian monarch came and captured Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali (2 Kgs 15:29) in 732 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>According to the prophet Isaiah (Is 9:1), though the Lord had made Naphtali’s land contemptible, he would make it glorious once again. Matthew sees the fulfillment of this prophecy in the person of Christ, who brought the message of God’s kingdom to the Jews living in the region of Naphtali’s tribe (Mt 4:13-15). In the book of Revelation (Rv 7:6), 12,000 members of Naphtali’s tribe are included among the sealed multitude of Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAPHTALI, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel that migrated from Egypt to Canaan, ultimately settling in northern Canaan in the high country of Galilee. During the period of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, Naphtali’s tribe is mentioned only incidentally. Acting as the leader of the tribe, Ahira, Enan’s son (Nm 2:29; 7:28), helped conduct the census of Naphtali (1:15) as Israel prepared for the prospect of war. The first census records 53,400 men ready for war (vv 42-43), whereas a later ...","summary_en":"NAPHTALI, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel that migrated from Egypt to Canaan, ultimately settling in northern Canaan in the high country of Galilee. During the period of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, Naphtali’s tribe is mentioned only incidentally. Acting as the leader of the tribe, Ahira, Enan’s son (Nm 2:29; 7:28), helped conduct the census of Naphtali (1:15) as Israel prepared for the prospect of war. The first census records 53,400 men ready for war (vv 42-43), whereas a later ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":6764,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City","title_en":"City","content_ro":"<h3>CITY<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandAntiquity\">Origin and Antiquity<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriate for a never-ceasing search for food. The contrast between settled city life and the nomadic experience is illustrated by a NT reference to the seminomadic Abraham: “He looked forward to the city which has foundations, whose builder and maker is God” (Heb 11:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Biblical City<\/h5>\n<p>The first biblical reference to a city is in Genesis 4:17. The Hebrew verb indicates that Cain “was building” the city. Probably he did not complete it, nor did he permanently reside there; he had earlier been condemned to a vagabond’s existence (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The Genesis account, affirming that city life came early in human existence, is internally consistent. The first human offspring, Cain and Abel, were involved in food production (Gn 4:2). Cain was an agriculturist, and Abel tended domesticated flocks. Genesis 4 shows both the prerequisite of food production and the resulting specialization. With Jabal, tentmaking was associated (v 20); with Jubal, music (v 21); and with Tubal-Cain, metalworking (v 22).<\/p>\n<h5>Archaeological Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>The testimony of archaeology generally agrees with an early date for the origin of cities. The oldest city thus far discovered in Canaan was Jericho. Using carbon-14 analysis of wood materials from the site, Kathleen Kenyon assigned a date prior to 7000 <span>BC<\/span>. Although less than 10 acres (4 hectares), it was a well-developed city with an impressive wall 6 feet (1.8 meters) thick and a round stone tower almost 30 feet (9 meters) high equipped with an inside staircase from top to bottom.<\/p>\n<p>Jericho seems to be 3,000 years older than other Canaanite cities. Most of the great Sumerian cities such as Ur, Ish, Lagah, and Uruk were founded later, in the fourth or early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LocationandName\">Location and Name<\/p>\n<h5>Topographical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>There were four primary considerations in the selection of a site for a city.<\/p>\n<p>1. The topographical situation of the ancient city had to contribute to its defense. A city built on a natural hill tended to be less vulnerable than one in the valley. Substantial advantage was given to the defenders if an enemy was forced to attack up an incline.<\/p>\n<p>The topography of Jerusalem illustrates the factor of security in the selection of a site. Although surrounded by higher mountains (Ps 125:2), Jerusalem originally was established on a limestone ridge protected on the east by the deep Kidron Valley and on the west by the equally formidable Tyropoean Valley. The two valleys met, thus affording Jerusalem protection from the south. To complete the security, walls were constructed around the city, with special emphasis on the northern side, where Jerusalem was otherwise exposed (cf. 2 Sm 5:6).<\/p>\n<li>2. A water source conveniently located was an absolute necessity for a city’s existence. The city spring or well became the center of social intercourse, particularly for the women, who were traditionally the water carriers. Biblical examples of socializing at the village well are numerous (Gn 29:1-12; 1 Kgs 1:38-39).<\/li>\n<p>In general, water sources were located in valleys, so the nearest spring to a city was frequently outside the walls. If an attacking enemy seized the water source, a city could be forced to surrender when the water supply stored within the walls ran dry. In Jerusalem, King Hezekiah constructed a water tunnel to neutralize the impending attack of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:30). His amazing engineering feat, more than 1,700 feet (518 meters) long and over 2,500 years old, can still be seen by visitors to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>3. Every city needed adequate food for its inhabitants. Ancient agriculturalists lived in a village or city and walked each day to their fields. The existence of a city, therefore, depended upon nearby cultivable fields adequate to meet the needs of the population.<\/li>\n<li>4. To facilitate importation of raw materials and exportation of finished products, proximity to local and international roads was desirable if not imperative. The important cities of the Bible were located along primary arteries of commerce.<\/li>\n<p>The relative importance of these four factors has changed over the centuries. With the appearance of strong nation-states such as Rome, cities could depend upon standing armies and thus give up their inconvenient hilltop sites. Development of plastered cisterns and aqueducts made possible the founding of cities some distance from water sources; for example, Caesarea, built by Herod the Great, was 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) from Mt Carmel’s springs. Trade routes shifted with changing international conditions, causing the demise of some cities and the development of others.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CITY<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandAntiquity\">Origin and Antiquity<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriate for a never-ceasing search for food. The contrast between settled city life and the nomadic experience is illustrated by a NT reference to the seminomadic Abraham: “He looked forward to the city which has foundations, whose builder and maker is God” (Heb 11:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The First Biblical City<\/h5>\n<p>The first biblical reference to a city is in Genesis 4:17. The Hebrew verb indicates that Cain “was building” the city. Probably he did not complete it, nor did he permanently reside there; he had earlier been condemned to a vagabond’s existence (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The Genesis account, affirming that city life came early in human existence, is internally consistent. The first human offspring, Cain and Abel, were involved in food production (Gn 4:2). Cain was an agriculturist, and Abel tended domesticated flocks. Genesis 4 shows both the prerequisite of food production and the resulting specialization. With Jabal, tentmaking was associated (v 20); with Jubal, music (v 21); and with Tubal-Cain, metalworking (v 22).<\/p>\n<h5>Archaeological Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>The testimony of archaeology generally agrees with an early date for the origin of cities. The oldest city thus far discovered in Canaan was Jericho. Using carbon-14 analysis of wood materials from the site, Kathleen Kenyon assigned a date prior to 7000 <span>BC<\/span>. Although less than 10 acres (4 hectares), it was a well-developed city with an impressive wall 6 feet (1.8 meters) thick and a round stone tower almost 30 feet (9 meters) high equipped with an inside staircase from top to bottom.<\/p>\n<p>Jericho seems to be 3,000 years older than other Canaanite cities. Most of the great Sumerian cities such as Ur, Ish, Lagah, and Uruk were founded later, in the fourth or early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LocationandName\">Location and Name<\/p>\n<h5>Topographical Prerequisites<\/h5>\n<p>There were four primary considerations in the selection of a site for a city.<\/p>\n<p>1. The topographical situation of the ancient city had to contribute to its defense. A city built on a natural hill tended to be less vulnerable than one in the valley. Substantial advantage was given to the defenders if an enemy was forced to attack up an incline.<\/p>\n<p>The topography of Jerusalem illustrates the factor of security in the selection of a site. Although surrounded by higher mountains (Ps 125:2), Jerusalem originally was established on a limestone ridge protected on the east by the deep Kidron Valley and on the west by the equally formidable Tyropoean Valley. The two valleys met, thus affording Jerusalem protection from the south. To complete the security, walls were constructed around the city, with special emphasis on the northern side, where Jerusalem was otherwise exposed (cf. 2 Sm 5:6).<\/p>\n<li>2. A water source conveniently located was an absolute necessity for a city’s existence. The city spring or well became the center of social intercourse, particularly for the women, who were traditionally the water carriers. Biblical examples of socializing at the village well are numerous (Gn 29:1-12; 1 Kgs 1:38-39).<\/li>\n<p>In general, water sources were located in valleys, so the nearest spring to a city was frequently outside the walls. If an attacking enemy seized the water source, a city could be forced to surrender when the water supply stored within the walls ran dry. In Jerusalem, King Hezekiah constructed a water tunnel to neutralize the impending attack of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:30). His amazing engineering feat, more than 1,700 feet (518 meters) long and over 2,500 years old, can still be seen by visitors to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>3. Every city needed adequate food for its inhabitants. Ancient agriculturalists lived in a village or city and walked each day to their fields. The existence of a city, therefore, depended upon nearby cultivable fields adequate to meet the needs of the population.<\/li>\n<li>4. To facilitate importation of raw materials and exportation of finished products, proximity to local and international roads was desirable if not imperative. The important cities of the Bible were located along primary arteries of commerce.<\/li>\n<p>The relative importance of these four factors has changed over the centuries. With the appearance of strong nation-states such as Rome, cities could depend upon standing armies and thus give up their inconvenient hilltop sites. Development of plastered cisterns and aqueducts made possible the founding of cities some distance from water sources; for example, Caesarea, built by Herod the Great, was 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) from Mt Carmel’s springs. Trade routes shifted with changing international conditions, causing the demise of some cities and the development of others.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CITY The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages. Origin and Antiquity Practical Prerequisites The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriat...","summary_en":"CITY The Bible does not generally distinguish between city, town, and village. The emphasis upon walls (Lv 25:29-31) and fortifications (Jos 19:35), with repeated references to towers, gates, and sieges, indicates that cities provided the primary security for the surrounding towns and villages. Origin and Antiquity Practical Prerequisites The existence of settled communities depended upon a controlled food supply. In contrast to the city dweller, the nomad lived in a portable tent, appropriat...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15154,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hammath (Place)","title_en":"Hammath (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HAMMATH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified outpost identified with the modern Hamman Tabariyeh (Jos 19:35). This place is located among hot springs on the western shore of Galilee and is probably identifiable with Hammon (1 Chr 6:76), Hammoth-dor (Jos 21:32), and perhaps the Emmaus of Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.2.3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAMMATH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified outpost identified with the modern Hamman Tabariyeh (Jos 19:35). This place is located among hot springs on the western shore of Galilee and is probably identifiable with Hammon (1 Chr 6:76), Hammoth-dor (Jos 21:32), and perhaps the Emmaus of Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.2.3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAMMATH (Place) Fortified outpost identified with the modern Hamman Tabariyeh (Jos 19:35). This place is located among hot springs on the western shore of Galilee and is probably identifiable with Hammon (1 Chr 6:76), Hammoth-dor (Jos 21:32), and perhaps the Emmaus of Josephus (Antiquities 18.2.3).","summary_en":"HAMMATH (Place) Fortified outpost identified with the modern Hamman Tabariyeh (Jos 19:35). This place is located among hot springs on the western shore of Galilee and is probably identifiable with Hammon (1 Chr 6:76), Hammoth-dor (Jos 21:32), and perhaps the Emmaus of Josephus (Antiquities 18.2.3).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22123,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kinnereth","title_en":"Kinnereth","content_ro":"<h3>KINNERETH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign of Baasha, king of the northern kingdom of Israel in the early ninth century <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 15:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Early name for the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11; Dt 3:17; Jos 11:2; 12:3; 13:27). It is hard to say whether the city (see #1 above) was named after the sea or vice versa. The name, however, means “lyres,” which could be an allusion to the Sea of Galilee’s shape, which roughly resembles that of a lyre. In NT times the pronunciation of the name was corrupted to Gennesaret (Lk 5:1). <em>See<\/em> Sea of Galilee.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KINNERETH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign of Baasha, king of the northern kingdom of Israel in the early ninth century <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 15:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Early name for the Sea of Galilee (Nm 34:11; Dt 3:17; Jos 11:2; 12:3; 13:27). It is hard to say whether the city (see #1 above) was named after the sea or vice versa. The name, however, means “lyres,” which could be an allusion to the Sea of Galilee’s shape, which roughly resembles that of a lyre. In NT times the pronunciation of the name was corrupted to Gennesaret (Lk 5:1). <em>See<\/em> Sea of Galilee.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KINNERETH 1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century BC. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 BC. 2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign ...","summary_en":"KINNERETH 1. Fortified town in the territory allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). It is also mentioned in an Egyptian list of towns conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century BC. The site has been identified as Tell el-’Oreimeh on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee. Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was inhabited from about 2000 to about 900 BC. 2. A district in Naphtali’s territory that included #1 above. It was conquered by Ben-hadad, king of Syria, in the reign ...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32344,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rakkath","title_en":"Rakkath","content_ro":"<h3>RAKKATH<\/h3>\n<p>One of 19 cities allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:35). The city served as a buffer against military attack on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jewish tradition identifies Rakkath with Tiberias, but modern scholars prefer its location at either Khirbet el-Quneitireh or Tell Eklatiyah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAKKATH<\/h3>\n<p>One of 19 cities allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:35). The city served as a buffer against military attack on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jewish tradition identifies Rakkath with Tiberias, but modern scholars prefer its location at either Khirbet el-Quneitireh or Tell Eklatiyah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAKKATH One of 19 cities allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:35). The city served as a buffer against military attack on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jewish tradition identifies Rakkath with Tiberias, but modern scholars prefer its location at either Khirbet el-Quneitireh or Tell Eklatiyah.","summary_en":"RAKKATH One of 19 cities allotted to Naphtali’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:35). The city served as a buffer against military attack on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jewish tradition identifies Rakkath with Tiberias, but modern scholars prefer its location at either Khirbet el-Quneitireh or Tell Eklatiyah.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34188,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sea of Galilee","title_en":"Sea of Galilee","content_ro":"<h3>SEA OF GALILEE<\/h3>\n<p>A large body of water in Palestine. It has had many names in its history. In the OT the Sea of Galilee was known as the Sea of Chinnereth or Kinnereth (Nm 34:11), named for the town (Jos 19:35), or as Chinneroth (12:3). Later, the name was changed to Lake of Gennesaret because the city of Gennesaret was located on the site of Chinnereth or Tell Ureime (Lk 5:1; 1 Macc 11:67). The most familiar name—the Sea of Galilee—was due to its connection with the province of Galilee to the west (Mt 4:18). It derived the name Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1, 23; 21:1) from the town of Tiberias on its southwestern shore. About <span>AD<\/span> 26 Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, built the town near the warm springs of Hamath by the sea and named it for the emperor. In the Gospels “the sea” usually identifies the Sea of Galilee. Its modern Hebrew name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yam Kinneret<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Location\">Location<\/p>\n<p>The sea lies in the lower section of the Jordan Valley about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, located in a range of mountains. The mountains of Upper Galilee are northwest of the lake and rise to a height of 4,000 feet (1,219.2 meters) above sea level, while the mountains on the east and west ascend about 2,000 feet (609.6 meters). On the west, south, and east is the Decapolis.<\/p>\n<p>At the northwest corner of the lake the mountain wall flattens into the rich plain of Gennesaret, and on the east at 2,000 feet (609.6 meters) above sea level it gives way to the fertile El Batila in the northeast, where the Jordan enters the sea. At the time of the NT the Sea of Galilee was surrounded by the towns of Capernaum, Bethsaida, Korazin, Magdala, Tiberias, and others.<\/p>\n<p>The sea is an integral part of the Jordan River, which feeds it with water from the snowcapped Mt Hermon (towering over 9,000 feet, or 2,743.2 meters, above sea level) and the Lebanon mountains. In its 65-mile (104.6-kilometer) course from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the Jordan River drops 590 feet (179.8 meters), an average of about nine feet per mile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/p>\n<p>The lake is approximately 13 miles or 20.9 kilometers long and 6 miles or 9.7 kilometers wide (7½ miles or 12.1 kilometers at its broadest point opposite Magdala). It lies almost 700 feet (213.4 meters) below the Mediterranean Sea, and its greatest depth is 200 feet (60.9 meters). Its shape resembles a harp, and some scholars think the name Chinnereth comes from a Hebrew word meaning “harp.” The climate is semitropical. Because of this climate, combined with the sulphur springs at Tiberias, it became a resort to which sick people traveled. The lake abounds in fish, so fishing became an important industry (Mt 4:18-22; Mk 1:16-20; Lk 5:9-11). Sudden and violent storms (Mt 8:23-27; Mk 4:35-41; Lk 8:22-25), caused by the collision of warm and cold air, occur regularly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Importance\">Importance<\/p>\n<p>Most of the events of Jesus’ life took place in Galilee, especially around Gennesaret, the most densely populated area of Palestine. He is said to have lived at Capernaum (Mt 4:13), and he did many miracles there (11:23). Because the area on the west of the lake was a health resort, Jesus found many infirm people there and healed them (Mk 1:32-34; 6:53-56). Other important occurrences in relation to the sea were the Sermon on the Mount, traditionally near Capernaum (Mt 5:1ff.; cf. 8:1, 5); the drowning of the swine in the region of the Gadarenes (8:28-34); the curse on Korazin (11:21); the calming of the sea (8:23-27; Mk 4:35-41; Lk 8:22-24); and Jesus’ walking on the water (Mt 14:22-23; Mk 6:45-51; Jn 6:16-21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galilee; Palestine.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SEA OF GALILEE<\/h3>\n<p>A large body of water in Palestine. It has had many names in its history. In the OT the Sea of Galilee was known as the Sea of Chinnereth or Kinnereth (Nm 34:11), named for the town (Jos 19:35), or as Chinneroth (12:3). Later, the name was changed to Lake of Gennesaret because the city of Gennesaret was located on the site of Chinnereth or Tell Ureime (Lk 5:1; 1 Macc 11:67). The most familiar name—the Sea of Galilee—was due to its connection with the province of Galilee to the west (Mt 4:18). It derived the name Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1, 23; 21:1) from the town of Tiberias on its southwestern shore. About <span>AD<\/span> 26 Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, built the town near the warm springs of Hamath by the sea and named it for the emperor. In the Gospels “the sea” usually identifies the Sea of Galilee. Its modern Hebrew name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yam Kinneret<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Location\">Location<\/p>\n<p>The sea lies in the lower section of the Jordan Valley about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, located in a range of mountains. The mountains of Upper Galilee are northwest of the lake and rise to a height of 4,000 feet (1,219.2 meters) above sea level, while the mountains on the east and west ascend about 2,000 feet (609.6 meters). On the west, south, and east is the Decapolis.<\/p>\n<p>At the northwest corner of the lake the mountain wall flattens into the rich plain of Gennesaret, and on the east at 2,000 feet (609.6 meters) above sea level it gives way to the fertile El Batila in the northeast, where the Jordan enters the sea. At the time of the NT the Sea of Galilee was surrounded by the towns of Capernaum, Bethsaida, Korazin, Magdala, Tiberias, and others.<\/p>\n<p>The sea is an integral part of the Jordan River, which feeds it with water from the snowcapped Mt Hermon (towering over 9,000 feet, or 2,743.2 meters, above sea level) and the Lebanon mountains. In its 65-mile (104.6-kilometer) course from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the Jordan River drops 590 feet (179.8 meters), an average of about nine feet per mile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/p>\n<p>The lake is approximately 13 miles or 20.9 kilometers long and 6 miles or 9.7 kilometers wide (7½ miles or 12.1 kilometers at its broadest point opposite Magdala). It lies almost 700 feet (213.4 meters) below the Mediterranean Sea, and its greatest depth is 200 feet (60.9 meters). Its shape resembles a harp, and some scholars think the name Chinnereth comes from a Hebrew word meaning “harp.” The climate is semitropical. Because of this climate, combined with the sulphur springs at Tiberias, it became a resort to which sick people traveled. The lake abounds in fish, so fishing became an important industry (Mt 4:18-22; Mk 1:16-20; Lk 5:9-11). Sudden and violent storms (Mt 8:23-27; Mk 4:35-41; Lk 8:22-25), caused by the collision of warm and cold air, occur regularly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Importance\">Importance<\/p>\n<p>Most of the events of Jesus’ life took place in Galilee, especially around Gennesaret, the most densely populated area of Palestine. He is said to have lived at Capernaum (Mt 4:13), and he did many miracles there (11:23). Because the area on the west of the lake was a health resort, Jesus found many infirm people there and healed them (Mk 1:32-34; 6:53-56). Other important occurrences in relation to the sea were the Sermon on the Mount, traditionally near Capernaum (Mt 5:1ff.; cf. 8:1, 5); the drowning of the swine in the region of the Gadarenes (8:28-34); the curse on Korazin (11:21); the calming of the sea (8:23-27; Mk 4:35-41; Lk 8:22-24); and Jesus’ walking on the water (Mt 14:22-23; Mk 6:45-51; Jn 6:16-21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galilee; Palestine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SEA OF GALILEE A large body of water in Palestine. It has had many names in its history. In the OT the Sea of Galilee was known as the Sea of Chinnereth or Kinnereth (Nm 34:11), named for the town (Jos 19:35), or as Chinneroth (12:3). Later, the name was changed to Lake of Gennesaret because the city of Gennesaret was located on the site of Chinnereth or Tell Ureime (Lk 5:1; 1 Macc 11:67). The most familiar name—the Sea of Galilee—was due to its connection with the province of Galilee to the ...","summary_en":"SEA OF GALILEE A large body of water in Palestine. It has had many names in its history. In the OT the Sea of Galilee was known as the Sea of Chinnereth or Kinnereth (Nm 34:11), named for the town (Jos 19:35), or as Chinneroth (12:3). Later, the name was changed to Lake of Gennesaret because the city of Gennesaret was located on the site of Chinnereth or Tell Ureime (Lk 5:1; 1 Macc 11:67). The most familiar name—the Sea of Galilee—was due to its connection with the province of Galilee to the ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39225,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zer","title_en":"Zer","content_ro":"<h3>ZER<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). From the surrounding names in the list, it may be inferred that it was located on the southwest side of the Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZER<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). From the surrounding names in the list, it may be inferred that it was located on the southwest side of the Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZER One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). From the surrounding names in the list, it may be inferred that it was located on the southwest side of the Sea of Galilee.","summary_en":"ZER One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35). From the surrounding names in the list, it may be inferred that it was located on the southwest side of the Sea of Galilee.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39317,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ziddim","title_en":"Ziddim","content_ro":"<h3>ZIDDIM<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified city in the land assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIDDIM<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified city in the land assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIDDIM Fortified city in the land assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35).","summary_en":"ZIDDIM Fortified city in the land assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:35).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"36":[{"id":562,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adamah","title_en":"Adamah","content_ro":"<h3>ADAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 19 fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:36). It is possibly identified with Qarn Hattin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 19 fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:36). It is possibly identified with Qarn Hattin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADAMAH One of the 19 fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:36). It is possibly identified with Qarn Hattin.","summary_en":"ADAMAH One of the 19 fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:36). It is possibly identified with Qarn Hattin.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":10133,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edrei","title_en":"Edrei","content_ro":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EDREI<\/h3>\n<li>1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:31). The modern site for Edrei seems to be Derba, a town of 5,000 in Syria. Many important remains from antiquity survive in this town, including shops, cisterns, streets, and underground caves.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortified city allotted to Naphtali (Jos 19:37). It was near Kedesh, and may possibly be identified with the modern Tell Khureibeh.<\/li>","summary_ro":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","summary_en":"EDREI 1. City of residence for Og, king of Bashan (Dt 1:4; 3:10; Jos 12:4; 13:12). It was located on the southern branch of the Harmuk River, which was the southern border of Bashan. At this strategic point Og could look over the neighboring region for invaders from the south or from the east, where the land turned into a desert. At Edrei, Moses was able to defeat Og before destroying the city (Nm 21:33-35; Dt 3:1-6). The territory was allotted to the Machirites, the eastern clan of the tribe...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10823,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"En-Hazor","title_en":"En-Hazor","content_ro":"<h3>EN-HAZOR<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified city of the OT (Jos 19:37). One of several Hazors in the OT, En-hazor was probably located in Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EN-HAZOR<\/h3>\n<p>Fortified city of the OT (Jos 19:37). One of several Hazors in the OT, En-hazor was probably located in Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EN-HAZOR Fortified city of the OT (Jos 19:37). One of several Hazors in the OT, En-hazor was probably located in Galilee.","summary_en":"EN-HAZOR Fortified city of the OT (Jos 19:37). One of several Hazors in the OT, En-hazor was probably located in Galilee.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"38":[{"id":4394,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Anath","title_en":"Beth-Anath","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-ANATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38) from which the tribe failed to drive out the original inhabitants (Jgs 1:33). The Israelites, who often made slaves of the remaining Canaanite people, were in many cases eventually corrupted by their pagan religious practices.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-ANATH<\/h3>\n<p>Town assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38) from which the tribe failed to drive out the original inhabitants (Jgs 1:33). The Israelites, who often made slaves of the remaining Canaanite people, were in many cases eventually corrupted by their pagan religious practices.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-ANATH Town assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38) from which the tribe failed to drive out the original inhabitants (Jgs 1:33). The Israelites, who often made slaves of the remaining Canaanite people, were in many cases eventually corrupted by their pagan religious practices.","summary_en":"BETH-ANATH Town assigned to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38) from which the tribe failed to drive out the original inhabitants (Jgs 1:33). The Israelites, who often made slaves of the remaining Canaanite people, were in many cases eventually corrupted by their pagan religious practices.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4570,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Shemesh","title_en":"Beth-Shemesh","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","summary_en":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16655,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Horem","title_en":"Horem","content_ro":"<h3>HOREM<\/h3>\n<p>Town set up for defense purposes in the uplands of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). Though its exact site is unknown, it must have been in northern Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOREM<\/h3>\n<p>Town set up for defense purposes in the uplands of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). Though its exact site is unknown, it must have been in northern Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOREM Town set up for defense purposes in the uplands of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). Though its exact site is unknown, it must have been in northern Galilee.","summary_en":"HOREM Town set up for defense purposes in the uplands of Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). Though its exact site is unknown, it must have been in northern Galilee.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17686,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Iron* (Place)","title_en":"Iron* (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>IRON* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Yiron, a city in Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). <em>See<\/em> Yiron.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IRON* (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Yiron, a city in Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). <em>See<\/em> Yiron.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IRON* (Place) KJV form of Yiron, a city in Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). See Yiron.","summary_en":"IRON* (Place) KJV form of Yiron, a city in Naphtali’s territory (Jos 19:38). See Yiron.","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25701,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Migdal-El","title_en":"Migdal-El","content_ro":"<h3>MIGDAL-EL<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIGDAL-EL<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIGDAL-EL One of the fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38).","summary_en":"MIGDAL-EL One of the fortified cities belonging to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39553,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Yiron","title_en":"Yiron","content_ro":"<h3>YIRON<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). Some have identified Yiron with the present village of Jarun, southeast of Bint Jebeil.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>YIRON<\/h3>\n<p>One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). Some have identified Yiron with the present village of Jarun, southeast of Bint Jebeil.<\/p>","summary_ro":"YIRON One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). Some have identified Yiron with the present village of Jarun, southeast of Bint Jebeil.","summary_en":"YIRON One of the fortified cities of Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). Some have identified Yiron with the present village of Jarun, southeast of Bint Jebeil.","source":"Articles\/XY.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"40":[{"id":8515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Dan","title_en":"Tribe of Dan","content_ro":"<h3>DAN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Dan was the second largest tribe at the first census taken in the wilderness (62,700 warriors—Nm 1:38-39). They were instructed to encamp on the north side of the Israelites’ camp along with Asher and Naphtali (Nm 2:25-31), and were to bring up the rear in the line of march (Nm 2:31; 10:25). At the second census 40 years later, just before entering the Promised Land, they had grown only to 64,400 (26:42-43), still second in size. The tribe does not stand out in the Conquest narratives (Dt 2:16–3:29; Jos 1–24; Jgs 1). Dan is listed among the tribes who reminded Israel of the covenant curses at Mt Ebal (Dt 27:13; cf. Jos 8:30-33). The tribe is called a “lion’s whelp” in Moses’ blessing (Dt 33:22). Some believe that the reference to “Bashan” in that blessing prefigured the Danites’ migration to the northern territory where they eventually settled.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most significant references to Dan’s tribe is the account of its northward migration (Jos 19:40-48; Jgs 18). The Danites had been allotted a portion of Canaan between Judah and Ephraim bordering the Mediterranean seacoast (Jos 19:40-46; Jgs 5:17), but were unable to occupy their territory except for the valley at Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 13:25; 18:2). As a result, a group of Danites, discouraged with their situation, marched north and captured Laish, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee and just below Israel’s northernmost border. Laish was renamed Dan at that time (18:27-29). Their association with that northern territory eventually gave rise to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10) as designating Israel’s northern and southern borders.<\/p>\n<p>Southern Dan continued for some time, as illustrated in the exploits of Samson of the tribe of Dan (Jgs 13–16). Evidently the southern Danites gradually merged into the tribe of Judah, and no historical reference to the southern Danite tribe is made in the rest of the OT. The Danites were mentioned in King David’s time as mustering a considerable army loyal to David (1 Chr 12:35; 27:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Danites were among the tribes who did not drive the Canaanites from their territory (Jos 13:4-5; cf. Jgs 1:34-35). Joshua had to prod them into the task at the Shiloh assembly (Jos 18:1-4; 19:40-48). Eventually the Danites gave up the effort and sought other lands in the north, where conquest was easier. Their disobedience was further manifested in their open sin of setting up a “graven image” and establishing a rival priesthood, even though their priest was a Levite (Jgs 18:30-31). The result of that idolatry was that, at the division of the Israelite kingdom at the end of King Solomon’s reign, King Jeroboam of the northern kingdom of Israel chose the city of Dan as one of the idol shrines in which to set up the golden calves (1 Kgs 12:28-29). The Danites’ apostasy, and that of the other northern tribes, continued throughout their history (2 Kgs 10:29), and because of it they were eventually carried captive to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribe name is mentioned in the prophet Ezekiel’s idealized description of the restored land and Jerusalem (Ez 48:1-2, 32). In the NT, the apostle John omitted the tribe from a list of Israel’s tribes (Rv 7:4-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Dan (Person); Dan (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAN, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Dan was the second largest tribe at the first census taken in the wilderness (62,700 warriors—Nm 1:38-39). They were instructed to encamp on the north side of the Israelites’ camp along with Asher and Naphtali (Nm 2:25-31), and were to bring up the rear in the line of march (Nm 2:31; 10:25). At the second census 40 years later, just before entering the Promised Land, they had grown only to 64,400 (26:42-43), still second in size. The tribe does not stand out in the Conquest narratives (Dt 2:16–3:29; Jos 1–24; Jgs 1). Dan is listed among the tribes who reminded Israel of the covenant curses at Mt Ebal (Dt 27:13; cf. Jos 8:30-33). The tribe is called a “lion’s whelp” in Moses’ blessing (Dt 33:22). Some believe that the reference to “Bashan” in that blessing prefigured the Danites’ migration to the northern territory where they eventually settled.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most significant references to Dan’s tribe is the account of its northward migration (Jos 19:40-48; Jgs 18). The Danites had been allotted a portion of Canaan between Judah and Ephraim bordering the Mediterranean seacoast (Jos 19:40-46; Jgs 5:17), but were unable to occupy their territory except for the valley at Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 13:25; 18:2). As a result, a group of Danites, discouraged with their situation, marched north and captured Laish, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee and just below Israel’s northernmost border. Laish was renamed Dan at that time (18:27-29). Their association with that northern territory eventually gave rise to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10) as designating Israel’s northern and southern borders.<\/p>\n<p>Southern Dan continued for some time, as illustrated in the exploits of Samson of the tribe of Dan (Jgs 13–16). Evidently the southern Danites gradually merged into the tribe of Judah, and no historical reference to the southern Danite tribe is made in the rest of the OT. The Danites were mentioned in King David’s time as mustering a considerable army loyal to David (1 Chr 12:35; 27:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Danites were among the tribes who did not drive the Canaanites from their territory (Jos 13:4-5; cf. Jgs 1:34-35). Joshua had to prod them into the task at the Shiloh assembly (Jos 18:1-4; 19:40-48). Eventually the Danites gave up the effort and sought other lands in the north, where conquest was easier. Their disobedience was further manifested in their open sin of setting up a “graven image” and establishing a rival priesthood, even though their priest was a Levite (Jgs 18:30-31). The result of that idolatry was that, at the division of the Israelite kingdom at the end of King Solomon’s reign, King Jeroboam of the northern kingdom of Israel chose the city of Dan as one of the idol shrines in which to set up the golden calves (1 Kgs 12:28-29). The Danites’ apostasy, and that of the other northern tribes, continued throughout their history (2 Kgs 10:29), and because of it they were eventually carried captive to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:1-23).<\/p>\n<p>The tribe name is mentioned in the prophet Ezekiel’s idealized description of the restored land and Jerusalem (Ez 48:1-2, 32). In the NT, the apostle John omitted the tribe from a list of Israel’s tribes (Rv 7:4-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Dan (Person); Dan (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAN, Tribe of Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12). Dan was the second largest tr...","summary_en":"DAN, Tribe of Israelite tribe named for the patriarch Jacob’s fifth son. The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (cf. “Shuham” in Nm 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in the wilderness narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Ex 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Lv 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the exodus (Nm 1:12). Dan was the second largest tr...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20851,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45577,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:40","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:40","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","summary_en":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73203,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:40","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:40","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","summary_en":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100829,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:40","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:40","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","summary_en":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128455,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:40","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:40","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:40-48<\/strong> The original allotment given to <em>the tribe of Dan<\/em> lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","summary_en":"19:40-48 The original allotment given to the tribe of Dan lay west of Judah and southwest of Ephraim’s main territory, between Judah and Philistia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"41":[{"id":4563,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Shemesh","title_en":"Beth-Shemesh","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, <span>kjv<\/span>). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the captured ark of the covenant because plagues were breaking out in their cities, they took it to Beth-shemesh. The area was also the scene of a great victory of King Joash (Jehoash) of Israel over King Amaziah of Judah (2 Chr 25:21-23). About a century later, Beth-shemesh was captured from King Ahaz of Judah by the Philistines (28:16-20). After that, the settlement fell into decline and was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>2. Canaanite city allotted to Issachar’s tribe (Jos 19:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Fortified Canaanite city allotted to Naphtali’s tribe (Jos 19:38). The inhabitants of this Beth-shemesh were not driven out by the Israelites (Jgs 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV reference to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (or On), where the sun was worshiped (Jer 43:13). <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","summary_en":"BETH-SHEMESH 1. Canaanite city on the northern border of Judah’s territory (Jos 15:10) and the southern border of Dan’s (before that tribe migrated north). Beth-shemesh means “the house of Shamash,” the Canaanite sun god. As Ir-shemesh, it was included in the list of cities of Dan (19:41). Beth-shemesh was one of the towns of Judah granted to the Levites (Jos 21:16; 1 Chr 6:59). Its inhabitants were called Beth-shemites (1 Sm 6:14, 18, kjv). When the Philistines decided to dispose of the capt...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11103,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eshtaol","title_en":"Eshtaol","content_ro":"<h3>ESHTAOL<\/h3>\n<p>Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danites (ch 18).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESHTAOL<\/h3>\n<p>Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danites (ch 18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESHTAOL Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danite...","summary_en":"ESHTAOL Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danite...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16240,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heres","title_en":"Heres","content_ro":"<h3>HERES<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region from which the Amorites were not expelled by the Israelites, known as Mt Heres (Jgs 1:34-35, <span>rsv<\/span> “Har-heres”). In Joshua 19:41-42, Mt Heres is synonymous with the town of Ir-shemesh (Beth-shemesh).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ascent of Heres (Jgs 8:13, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>nlt<\/span> “Heres Pass”). Though the text and the exact nature of the terrain is unclear, it was the place on the Jordan River from which Gideon returned after his victory over Zebah and Zalmunna.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HERES<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region from which the Amorites were not expelled by the Israelites, known as Mt Heres (Jgs 1:34-35, <span>rsv<\/span> “Har-heres”). In Joshua 19:41-42, Mt Heres is synonymous with the town of Ir-shemesh (Beth-shemesh).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ascent of Heres (Jgs 8:13, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>nlt<\/span> “Heres Pass”). Though the text and the exact nature of the terrain is unclear, it was the place on the Jordan River from which Gideon returned after his victory over Zebah and Zalmunna.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HERES 1. Region from which the Amorites were not expelled by the Israelites, known as Mt Heres (Jgs 1:34-35, rsv “Har-heres”). In Joshua 19:41-42, Mt Heres is synonymous with the town of Ir-shemesh (Beth-shemesh). 2. Ascent of Heres (Jgs 8:13, rsv; nlt “Heres Pass”). Though the text and the exact nature of the terrain is unclear, it was the place on the Jordan River from which Gideon returned after his victory over Zebah and Zalmunna.","summary_en":"HERES 1. Region from which the Amorites were not expelled by the Israelites, known as Mt Heres (Jgs 1:34-35, rsv “Har-heres”). In Joshua 19:41-42, Mt Heres is synonymous with the town of Ir-shemesh (Beth-shemesh). 2. Ascent of Heres (Jgs 8:13, rsv; nlt “Heres Pass”). Though the text and the exact nature of the terrain is unclear, it was the place on the Jordan River from which Gideon returned after his victory over Zebah and Zalmunna.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17695,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ir-Shemesh","title_en":"Ir-Shemesh","content_ro":"<h3>IR-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:41), probably identical with Beth-shemesh.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IR-SHEMESH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:41), probably identical with Beth-shemesh.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IR-SHEMESH City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:41), probably identical with Beth-shemesh.","summary_en":"IR-SHEMESH City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:41), probably identical with Beth-shemesh.","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39521,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zorathite Zorah","title_en":"Zorathite Zorah","content_ro":"<h3>ZORAH, ZORATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>A city of the Shephelah and its people, attributed to both the tribe of Dan and of Judah (Jos 15:33; 19:41). It was part of Judah’s original allocation but was settled by Danites until they established their own territory near Laish (Jgs 18:1-11). Originally Zorah and nearby Eshtaol seem to have been settled by residents of Kiriath-jearim (1 Chr 2:53; 4:2). The city was the home of Manoah, the father of Samson (Jgs 13:2). Samson’s ministry was focused in the region surrounding Zorah and Eshtaol, and he was ultimately buried there. Zorah is traditionally identified with Tell Sur’ah, which is strategically located at the entrance to a large valley leading toward the Mediterranean plain.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZORAH, ZORATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>A city of the Shephelah and its people, attributed to both the tribe of Dan and of Judah (Jos 15:33; 19:41). It was part of Judah’s original allocation but was settled by Danites until they established their own territory near Laish (Jgs 18:1-11). Originally Zorah and nearby Eshtaol seem to have been settled by residents of Kiriath-jearim (1 Chr 2:53; 4:2). The city was the home of Manoah, the father of Samson (Jgs 13:2). Samson’s ministry was focused in the region surrounding Zorah and Eshtaol, and he was ultimately buried there. Zorah is traditionally identified with Tell Sur’ah, which is strategically located at the entrance to a large valley leading toward the Mediterranean plain.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZORAH, ZORATHITE A city of the Shephelah and its people, attributed to both the tribe of Dan and of Judah (Jos 15:33; 19:41). It was part of Judah’s original allocation but was settled by Danites until they established their own territory near Laish (Jgs 18:1-11). Originally Zorah and nearby Eshtaol seem to have been settled by residents of Kiriath-jearim (1 Chr 2:53; 4:2). The city was the home of Manoah, the father of Samson (Jgs 13:2). Samson’s ministry was focused in the region surroundin...","summary_en":"ZORAH, ZORATHITE A city of the Shephelah and its people, attributed to both the tribe of Dan and of Judah (Jos 15:33; 19:41). It was part of Judah’s original allocation but was settled by Danites until they established their own territory near Laish (Jgs 18:1-11). Originally Zorah and nearby Eshtaol seem to have been settled by residents of Kiriath-jearim (1 Chr 2:53; 4:2). The city was the home of Manoah, the father of Samson (Jgs 13:2). Samson’s ministry was focused in the region surroundin...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"42":[{"id":994,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aijalon","title_en":"Aijalon","content_ro":"<h3>AIJALON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located in a valley 15 miles (24 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem (at modern Yalo) and originally allotted to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:42). Aijalon was designated as one of four levitical cities in Dan’s area (Jos 21:24) and was later made a city of refuge by Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 6:69). Dan’s tribe had by then migrated north, having been unable to occupy its southerly allotment, including Aijalon (Jgs 1:34-36). Near Aijalon, Saul and Jonathan won a victory over the Philistines (1 Sm 14:31). Members of Benjamin’s tribe occupied it at one time (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<p>When the kingdom was divided after Solomon’s death, Aijalon, on the northwest border of the southern kingdom, was fortified by King Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:10). It was one of 65 cities claimed to have been conquered by the Egyptian pharaoh Shishak, who invaded Palestine around 924 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Chr 12:2-12). Much later, Aijalon was lost to the Philistines during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 28:18).<\/p>\n<p>The valley of Aijalon was part of the geographical setting of Joshua’s battle to control Gibeon (Jos 10:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). To make the Israelite victory complete, God answered Joshua’s prayer to “let the sun stand still over Gibeon, and the moon over the valley of Aijalon” (Jos 10:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Levitical Cities.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the territory of Zebulun, burial place of the judge Elon (Jgs 12:12).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AIJALON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located in a valley 15 miles (24 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem (at modern Yalo) and originally allotted to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:42). Aijalon was designated as one of four levitical cities in Dan’s area (Jos 21:24) and was later made a city of refuge by Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 6:69). Dan’s tribe had by then migrated north, having been unable to occupy its southerly allotment, including Aijalon (Jgs 1:34-36). Near Aijalon, Saul and Jonathan won a victory over the Philistines (1 Sm 14:31). Members of Benjamin’s tribe occupied it at one time (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<p>When the kingdom was divided after Solomon’s death, Aijalon, on the northwest border of the southern kingdom, was fortified by King Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:10). It was one of 65 cities claimed to have been conquered by the Egyptian pharaoh Shishak, who invaded Palestine around 924 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Chr 12:2-12). Much later, Aijalon was lost to the Philistines during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 28:18).<\/p>\n<p>The valley of Aijalon was part of the geographical setting of Joshua’s battle to control Gibeon (Jos 10:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). To make the Israelite victory complete, God answered Joshua’s prayer to “let the sun stand still over Gibeon, and the moon over the valley of Aijalon” (Jos 10:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Levitical Cities.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the territory of Zebulun, burial place of the judge Elon (Jgs 12:12).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AIJALON 1. City located in a valley 15 miles (24 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem (at modern Yalo) and originally allotted to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:42). Aijalon was designated as one of four levitical cities in Dan’s area (Jos 21:24) and was later made a city of refuge by Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 6:69). Dan’s tribe had by then migrated north, having been unable to occupy its southerly allotment, including Aijalon (Jgs 1:34-36). Near Aijalon, Saul and Jonathan won a victory over the Philistines ...","summary_en":"AIJALON 1. City located in a valley 15 miles (24 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem (at modern Yalo) and originally allotted to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:42). Aijalon was designated as one of four levitical cities in Dan’s area (Jos 21:24) and was later made a city of refuge by Ephraim’s tribe (1 Chr 6:69). Dan’s tribe had by then migrated north, having been unable to occupy its southerly allotment, including Aijalon (Jgs 1:34-36). Near Aijalon, Saul and Jonathan won a victory over the Philistines ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1013,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ajalon*","title_en":"Ajalon*","content_ro":"<h3>AJALON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Aijalon in Joshua 10:12; 19:42; and 2 Chronicles 28:18. <em>See<\/em> Aijalon #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AJALON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of Aijalon in Joshua 10:12; 19:42; and 2 Chronicles 28:18. <em>See<\/em> Aijalon #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AJALON* KJV rendering of Aijalon in Joshua 10:12; 19:42; and 2 Chronicles 28:18. See Aijalon #1.","summary_en":"AJALON* KJV rendering of Aijalon in Joshua 10:12; 19:42; and 2 Chronicles 28:18. See Aijalon #1.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18090,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ithlah","title_en":"Ithlah","content_ro":"<h3>ITHLAH<\/h3>\n<p>City given to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, after the initial conquest of Palestine by Joshua (Jos 19:42).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ITHLAH<\/h3>\n<p>City given to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, after the initial conquest of Palestine by Joshua (Jos 19:42).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ITHLAH City given to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, after the initial conquest of Palestine by Joshua (Jos 19:42).","summary_en":"ITHLAH City given to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, after the initial conquest of Palestine by Joshua (Jos 19:42).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19736,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jethlah*","title_en":"Jethlah*","content_ro":"<h3>JETHLAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the Danite city Ithlah in Joshua 19:42. <em>See<\/em> Ithlah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETHLAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of the Danite city Ithlah in Joshua 19:42. <em>See<\/em> Ithlah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETHLAH* KJV form of the Danite city Ithlah in Joshua 19:42. See Ithlah.","summary_en":"JETHLAH* KJV form of the Danite city Ithlah in Joshua 19:42. See Ithlah.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34545,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shaalabbin, Shaalbim, Shaalbon","title_en":"Shaalabbin, Shaalbim, Shaalbon","content_ro":"<h3>SHAALABBIN, SHAALBIM, SHAALBON<\/h3>\n<p>Amorite city known by three names, assigned to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Ir-shemesh and Aijalon (Jos 19:42). The Danites, however, were unable to defeat the Amorites and take possession of the city. When the house of Joseph grew strong, the Ephraimites conquered Shaalbim and reduced the Amorites to forced labor (Jgs 1:35). Later, Shaalbim, along with the cities of Makaz, Beth-shemesh, and Elon-bethhanan made up Solomon’s second administrative district (1 Kgs 4:9). Eliahba the Shaalbonite was one of David’s 30 mighty men (2 Sm 23:32; 1 Chr 11:33).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAALABBIN, SHAALBIM, SHAALBON<\/h3>\n<p>Amorite city known by three names, assigned to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Ir-shemesh and Aijalon (Jos 19:42). The Danites, however, were unable to defeat the Amorites and take possession of the city. When the house of Joseph grew strong, the Ephraimites conquered Shaalbim and reduced the Amorites to forced labor (Jgs 1:35). Later, Shaalbim, along with the cities of Makaz, Beth-shemesh, and Elon-bethhanan made up Solomon’s second administrative district (1 Kgs 4:9). Eliahba the Shaalbonite was one of David’s 30 mighty men (2 Sm 23:32; 1 Chr 11:33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAALABBIN, SHAALBIM, SHAALBON Amorite city known by three names, assigned to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Ir-shemesh and Aijalon (Jos 19:42). The Danites, however, were unable to defeat the Amorites and take possession of the city. When the house of Joseph grew strong, the Ephraimites conquered Shaalbim and reduced the Amorites to forced labor (Jgs 1:35). Later, Shaalbim, along with the cities of Makaz, Beth-shemesh, and Elon-bethhanan made up Solomon’s second administra...","summary_en":"SHAALABBIN, SHAALBIM, SHAALBON Amorite city known by three names, assigned to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Ir-shemesh and Aijalon (Jos 19:42). The Danites, however, were unable to defeat the Amorites and take possession of the city. When the house of Joseph grew strong, the Ephraimites conquered Shaalbim and reduced the Amorites to forced labor (Jgs 1:35). Later, Shaalbim, along with the cities of Makaz, Beth-shemesh, and Elon-bethhanan made up Solomon’s second administra...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"43":[{"id":10206,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ekron, Ekronites*","title_en":"Ekron, Ekronites*","content_ro":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","summary_en":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10745,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elon (Place)","title_en":"Elon (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>ELON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Village near Timnah, the home of Samson’s first wife. Elon was included in the inheritance allotted to Dan’s tribe in Joshua’s distribution of the Promised Land (Jos 19:43; cf. 14:1-2). It is generally identified with Khirbet Wadi ’Alinm near ’Ain Shems.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Village near Timnah, the home of Samson’s first wife. Elon was included in the inheritance allotted to Dan’s tribe in Joshua’s distribution of the Promised Land (Jos 19:43; cf. 14:1-2). It is generally identified with Khirbet Wadi ’Alinm near ’Ain Shems.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELON (Place) Village near Timnah, the home of Samson’s first wife. Elon was included in the inheritance allotted to Dan’s tribe in Joshua’s distribution of the Promised Land (Jos 19:43; cf. 14:1-2). It is generally identified with Khirbet Wadi ’Alinm near ’Ain Shems.","summary_en":"ELON (Place) Village near Timnah, the home of Samson’s first wife. Elon was included in the inheritance allotted to Dan’s tribe in Joshua’s distribution of the Promised Land (Jos 19:43; cf. 14:1-2). It is generally identified with Khirbet Wadi ’Alinm near ’Ain Shems.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37320,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Timnah (Place)","title_en":"Timnah (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>TIMNAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelites and the Philistines. Apparently, Israel did achieve control of Timnah during the conquest (cf. Jos 19:43), but it was under Philistine control by the time of Samson (Jgs 14:1). Ahaz recaptured Timnah (c. 730 <span>BC<\/span>) from the Philistines (2 Chr 28:18).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities of the southern hill country that was part of the inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:57). It is possible that this is the site of Judah’s encounter with Tamar (Gn 38:12-14; and perhaps the same as #1 above).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>TIMNAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelites and the Philistines. Apparently, Israel did achieve control of Timnah during the conquest (cf. Jos 19:43), but it was under Philistine control by the time of Samson (Jgs 14:1). Ahaz recaptured Timnah (c. 730 <span>BC<\/span>) from the Philistines (2 Chr 28:18).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities of the southern hill country that was part of the inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:57). It is possible that this is the site of Judah’s encounter with Tamar (Gn 38:12-14; and perhaps the same as #1 above).<\/li>","summary_ro":"TIMNAH (Place) 1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelite...","summary_en":"TIMNAH (Place) 1. One of the cities on the northern boundary of Judah’s inheritance, located between Beth-shemesh and Ekron (Jos 15:10). This is the likely site of Judah’s affair with Tamar, which resulted in the birth of Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:12-14). A frontier town between Judah and Philistia, Timnah was the place where Samson had his first marital difficulties with one of the daughters of the Philistines (Jgs 14:1-5; 15:6). The town evidently changed hands frequently between the Israelite...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45578,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:43","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","summary_en":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73204,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:43","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","summary_en":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100830,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:43","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","summary_en":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128456,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:43","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:43<\/strong> About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of <em>Timnah<\/em> and <em>Ekron<\/em> (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> reflects this movement.)<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","summary_en":"19:43 About fifty years after Israel came into Canaan under Joshua, the Philistines moved into the southern coastal plain and occupied the cities of Timnah and Ekron (Judg 14:1-2; 1 Sam 5:1-10). The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples who had perhaps been driven out of the Greek mainland and the Greek islands by an invasion from the north. The Sea Peoples also invaded and destroyed the Hittite Empire to the north of Israel. (Some scholars think that Homer’s Iliad reflects this movement.)","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"44":[{"id":3373,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baalath","title_en":"Baalath","content_ro":"<h3>BAALATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town of Dan that may be the same city as #2 below, although some scholars separate the two (Jos 19:44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Store city built by Solomon, probably west of Gezer in the original territory of Dan (1 Kgs 9:18; 2 Chr 8:6).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAALATH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town of Dan that may be the same city as #2 below, although some scholars separate the two (Jos 19:44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Store city built by Solomon, probably west of Gezer in the original territory of Dan (1 Kgs 9:18; 2 Chr 8:6).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAALATH 1. Town of Dan that may be the same city as #2 below, although some scholars separate the two (Jos 19:44). 2. Store city built by Solomon, probably west of Gezer in the original territory of Dan (1 Kgs 9:18; 2 Chr 8:6). See also Baalath-beer.","summary_en":"BAALATH 1. Town of Dan that may be the same city as #2 below, although some scholars separate the two (Jos 19:44). 2. Store city built by Solomon, probably west of Gezer in the original territory of Dan (1 Kgs 9:18; 2 Chr 8:6). See also Baalath-beer.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10759,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eltekeh","title_en":"Eltekeh","content_ro":"<h3>ELTEKEH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:44); it was later assigned to the Kohathite Levites (21:23). An important battle was fought near Eltekeh between King Sennacherib of Assyria and the Egyptians. The Egyptians were subsequently routed, and the city was captured by the Assyrians. From here Sennacherib went on to invade Judah (2 Kgs 18:13). Eltekeh was located north of Ekron and west of Timnah, but its exact site is uncertain.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELTEKEH<\/h3>\n<p>City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:44); it was later assigned to the Kohathite Levites (21:23). An important battle was fought near Eltekeh between King Sennacherib of Assyria and the Egyptians. The Egyptians were subsequently routed, and the city was captured by the Assyrians. From here Sennacherib went on to invade Judah (2 Kgs 18:13). Eltekeh was located north of Ekron and west of Timnah, but its exact site is uncertain.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELTEKEH City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:44); it was later assigned to the Kohathite Levites (21:23). An important battle was fought near Eltekeh between King Sennacherib of Assyria and the Egyptians. The Egyptians were subsequently routed, and the city was captured by the Assyrians. From here Sennacherib went on to invade Judah (2 Kgs 18:13). Eltekeh was located north of Ekron and west of Timnah, but its exact site is uncertain.","summary_en":"ELTEKEH City allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:44); it was later assigned to the Kohathite Levites (21:23). An important battle was fought near Eltekeh between King Sennacherib of Assyria and the Egyptians. The Egyptians were subsequently routed, and the city was captured by the Assyrians. From here Sennacherib went on to invade Judah (2 Kgs 18:13). Eltekeh was located north of Ekron and west of Timnah, but its exact site is uncertain.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13753,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibbethon","title_en":"Gibbethon","content_ro":"<h3>GIBBETHON<\/h3>\n<p>City in the western part of central Palestine. It was located in the territory of Dan (Jos 19:44) and allotted to the Levite clan of Kohath (21:23). Baasha killed King Nadab at Gibbethon when Israel was taking the city from the Philistines (1 Kgs 15:27). About 26 years later, Omri was proclaimed king at Gibbethon (16:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBBETHON<\/h3>\n<p>City in the western part of central Palestine. It was located in the territory of Dan (Jos 19:44) and allotted to the Levite clan of Kohath (21:23). Baasha killed King Nadab at Gibbethon when Israel was taking the city from the Philistines (1 Kgs 15:27). About 26 years later, Omri was proclaimed king at Gibbethon (16:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBBETHON City in the western part of central Palestine. It was located in the territory of Dan (Jos 19:44) and allotted to the Levite clan of Kohath (21:23). Baasha killed King Nadab at Gibbethon when Israel was taking the city from the Philistines (1 Kgs 15:27). About 26 years later, Omri was proclaimed king at Gibbethon (16:17). See also Levitical Cities.","summary_en":"GIBBETHON City in the western part of central Palestine. It was located in the territory of Dan (Jos 19:44) and allotted to the Levite clan of Kohath (21:23). Baasha killed King Nadab at Gibbethon when Israel was taking the city from the Philistines (1 Kgs 15:27). About 26 years later, Omri was proclaimed king at Gibbethon (16:17). See also Levitical Cities.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"45":[{"id":4274,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bene-Berak","title_en":"Bene-Berak","content_ro":"<h3>BENE-BERAK<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities of Dan (Jos 19:45). The modern name is Ibn Ibrak, a suburb northwest of Tel Aviv.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BENE-BERAK<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities of Dan (Jos 19:45). The modern name is Ibn Ibrak, a suburb northwest of Tel Aviv.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BENE-BERAK One of the cities of Dan (Jos 19:45). The modern name is Ibn Ibrak, a suburb northwest of Tel Aviv.","summary_en":"BENE-BERAK One of the cities of Dan (Jos 19:45). The modern name is Ibn Ibrak, a suburb northwest of Tel Aviv.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13255,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gath-Rimmon","title_en":"Gath-Rimmon","content_ro":"<h3>GATH-RIMMON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located in the land allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:45). It was assigned as one of the four Levitical cities for the Kohathites in Dan (21:24). Lost to the Canaanites, Gath-rimmon was later regained by Ephraim and included as one of its cities for the sons of Levi (1 Chr 6:69). Its site is identifiable with the modern Tell el-Jerisheh.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of two cities given to the Levites in Manasseh west of the Jordan River (Jos 21:25), suggesting a possible transcription mistake, which is better read as Bileam (cf. 1 Chr 6:70).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GATH-RIMMON<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located in the land allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:45). It was assigned as one of the four Levitical cities for the Kohathites in Dan (21:24). Lost to the Canaanites, Gath-rimmon was later regained by Ephraim and included as one of its cities for the sons of Levi (1 Chr 6:69). Its site is identifiable with the modern Tell el-Jerisheh.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levitical Cities.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of two cities given to the Levites in Manasseh west of the Jordan River (Jos 21:25), suggesting a possible transcription mistake, which is better read as Bileam (cf. 1 Chr 6:70).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GATH-RIMMON 1. City located in the land allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:45). It was assigned as one of the four Levitical cities for the Kohathites in Dan (21:24). Lost to the Canaanites, Gath-rimmon was later regained by Ephraim and included as one of its cities for the sons of Levi (1 Chr 6:69). Its site is identifiable with the modern Tell el-Jerisheh. See also Levitical Cities. 2. One of two cities given to the Levites in Manasseh west of the Jordan River (Jos 21:25), s...","summary_en":"GATH-RIMMON 1. City located in the land allotted to Dan’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 19:45). It was assigned as one of the four Levitical cities for the Kohathites in Dan (21:24). Lost to the Canaanites, Gath-rimmon was later regained by Ephraim and included as one of its cities for the sons of Levi (1 Chr 6:69). Its site is identifiable with the modern Tell el-Jerisheh. See also Levitical Cities. 2. One of two cities given to the Levites in Manasseh west of the Jordan River (Jos 21:25), s...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18868,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehud","title_en":"Jehud","content_ro":"<h3>JEHUD<\/h3>\n<p>One of the towns given to Dan’s tribe after the Conquest (Jos 19:45). It has been variously identified with the village of el-Yehudiyeh, about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa, and with Yazur, about five miles (8 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEHUD<\/h3>\n<p>One of the towns given to Dan’s tribe after the Conquest (Jos 19:45). It has been variously identified with the village of el-Yehudiyeh, about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa, and with Yazur, about five miles (8 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEHUD One of the towns given to Dan’s tribe after the Conquest (Jos 19:45). It has been variously identified with the village of el-Yehudiyeh, about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa, and with Yazur, about five miles (8 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","summary_en":"JEHUD One of the towns given to Dan’s tribe after the Conquest (Jos 19:45). It has been variously identified with the village of el-Yehudiyeh, about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa, and with Yazur, about five miles (8 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28071,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Obed-Edom","title_en":"Obed-Edom","content_ro":"<h3>OBED-EDOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when the oxen stumbled brought upon him immediate death. David’s consternation and fear at this turn of events led him to reconsider his intention of bringing the ark to Jerusalem. Apparently Obed-edom’s home was nearby and it was convenient to leave the ark in his care. When David was informed after three months that the Lord had greatly blessed Obed-edom, he realized that the judgment that fell on Uzzah was incurred because the ark was carried contrary to the method prescribed in the Law (Nm 4:15; 7:9) and not because the Lord was angry with Uzzah. He ordered that the ark be taken from Obed-edom’s home and carried to Jerusalem in the proper manner (1 Chr 15:25-28). Apparently Obed-edom was rewarded for his faithful service by being appointed a gatekeeper for the ark in Jerusalem (15:24; 26:4, 8, 15). But some scholars believe that Obed-edom the gatekeeper was a man other than the one referred to above.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical musician who ministered before the ark (1 Chr 15:21; 16:5, 38). He was the son of Jeduthun, one of David’s chief singers. Some scholars think that the musician and singer were different men.<\/li>\n<li>3. Levitical guardian of the sacred vessels of the temple taken hostage by Joash (2 Chr 25:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>OBED-EDOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when the oxen stumbled brought upon him immediate death. David’s consternation and fear at this turn of events led him to reconsider his intention of bringing the ark to Jerusalem. Apparently Obed-edom’s home was nearby and it was convenient to leave the ark in his care. When David was informed after three months that the Lord had greatly blessed Obed-edom, he realized that the judgment that fell on Uzzah was incurred because the ark was carried contrary to the method prescribed in the Law (Nm 4:15; 7:9) and not because the Lord was angry with Uzzah. He ordered that the ark be taken from Obed-edom’s home and carried to Jerusalem in the proper manner (1 Chr 15:25-28). Apparently Obed-edom was rewarded for his faithful service by being appointed a gatekeeper for the ark in Jerusalem (15:24; 26:4, 8, 15). But some scholars believe that Obed-edom the gatekeeper was a man other than the one referred to above.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical musician who ministered before the ark (1 Chr 15:21; 16:5, 38). He was the son of Jeduthun, one of David’s chief singers. Some scholars think that the musician and singer were different men.<\/li>\n<li>3. Levitical guardian of the sacred vessels of the temple taken hostage by Joash (2 Chr 25:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"OBED-EDOM 1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when th...","summary_en":"OBED-EDOM 1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when th...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"46":[{"id":18515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Japho*","title_en":"Japho*","content_ro":"<h3>JAPHO*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Joppa in Joshua 19:46. <em>See<\/em> Joppa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAPHO*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Joppa in Joshua 19:46. <em>See<\/em> Joppa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAPHO* KJV form of Joppa in Joshua 19:46. See Joppa.","summary_en":"JAPHO* KJV form of Joppa in Joshua 19:46. See Joppa.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20498,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joppa","title_en":"Joppa","content_ro":"<h3>JOPPA<\/h3>\n<p>City about 35 miles (56.3 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem that served as Jerusalem’s seaport. Joppa was built on a rocky hill about 116 feet (35.4 meters) high, with a cape projecting beyond the coastline into the sea, and was the only natural harbor on the Mediterranean coast between Egypt and the OT town of Acco. Some 300 to 400 feet (91.4 to 121.9 meters) offshore a series of reefs formed a breakwater so that entrance into the harbor was gained from the north. It is possible that the harbor was larger and better protected in biblical times than it is today. The biblical city was well supplied with water, and the land surrounding it was quite fertile.<\/p>\n\n<p>Joppa first appears in ancient records in the Egyptian list of Palestinian cities captured by Thutmose III (1490–1432 <span>BC<\/span>). During the Amarna period, it was ruled by a local prince in alliance with Jerusalem. One source from this period describes its beautiful gardens and the craftsmanship of its workers in metal, leather, and wood. When Palestine was divided among the 12 tribes, Joppa was assigned to Dan (Jos 19:46; <span>kjv<\/span> “Japho”). It was soon taken by the Philistines, who made it one of their seaports. David’s conquest of the Philistines restored Joppa to Israel, and during Solomon’s reign, it became a major port serving Jerusalem. Cedar logs were floated from Lebanon to Joppa and then transported to Jerusalem for use in building the temple (2 Chr 2:16).<\/p>\n<p>Joppa was the seaport to which Jonah fled in an attempt to avoid preaching to Nineveh (Jon 1:3); there, hoping to escape his responsibility, he boarded a ship bound for Tarshish. When Tiglath-pileser III invaded Philistia in 743 <span>BC<\/span>, Joppa probably was one of the Philistine cities that fell to him. Sennacherib, in his campaign of 701 <span>BC<\/span>, lists Joppa as one of the cities he occupied. Subsequent to that, little is known of it until the time of Ezra, when once again cedar logs from Lebanon were floated to Joppa and taken to Jerusalem for the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 3:7). During the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, Eshmunazar of Sidon controlled the city. When Sidon revolted against Persia and was destroyed by Artaxerxes III, Joppa apparently became a free city. Alexander the Great changed its name from Japho (its OT name) to Joppa and established a mint there, making it a city of some importance in the Greek Empire. Following Alexander’s death, his successors fought over the city several times. It was ruled by Egypt from 301 <span>BC<\/span> until 197 <span>BC<\/span>, when Antiochus III made it a part of the Seleucid kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Joppa had varied experiences. When Antiochus IV Epiphanes moved toward Jerusalem in 168 <span>BC<\/span> to enforce his program of Hellenization, he landed his troops at Joppa. In 164 <span>BC<\/span>, because of the success of Judas Maccabeus against the Seleucids, non-Jewish citizens drowned about 200 Jews. Judas retaliated by burning the harbor installations and the boats anchored there but was unable to conquer the city itself (2 Macc 12:3-9). In 147 <span>BC<\/span> Jonathan and Simon defeated Appollonius Taos, the Syrian general, and occupied Joppa for Alexander I Epiphanes, a contender for the Syrian throne (1 Macc 10:74-86). Through a series of political moves in the next few years Simon was able to fortify the city, expel the Greek inhabitants, and firmly establish Joppa as a Jewish city. During Pompey’s Roman occupation, Joppa was declared a free city; it was returned to the Jews by Julius Caesar (47 <span>BC<\/span>); and it was captured by Herod the Great in 37 <span>BC<\/span>. Hated by the residents of Joppa, Herod built a new port at Caesarea, about 40 miles (64.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. By the time of Jesus’ birth, Joppa was under the rule of Caesarea in the province of Syria (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 17.13.2-4).<\/p>\n<p>A Christian congregation appeared quite early in Joppa. Among the disciples living there were Dorcas, whom Peter raised from death (Acts 9:36-41), and Simon the tanner (v 43). From Joppa, Peter was called to Caesarea to present the gospel to the Roman centurion Cornelius (10:1-48).<\/p>\n<p>Joppa was a primary center of revolt against the Romans. It was destroyed by Vespasian in <span>AD<\/span> 68 and replaced with a Roman army camp. It was later rebuilt, and is known today as Jaffa, a suburb of Tel Aviv.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOPPA<\/h3>\n<p>City about 35 miles (56.3 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem that served as Jerusalem’s seaport. Joppa was built on a rocky hill about 116 feet (35.4 meters) high, with a cape projecting beyond the coastline into the sea, and was the only natural harbor on the Mediterranean coast between Egypt and the OT town of Acco. Some 300 to 400 feet (91.4 to 121.9 meters) offshore a series of reefs formed a breakwater so that entrance into the harbor was gained from the north. It is possible that the harbor was larger and better protected in biblical times than it is today. The biblical city was well supplied with water, and the land surrounding it was quite fertile.<\/p>\n\n<p>Joppa first appears in ancient records in the Egyptian list of Palestinian cities captured by Thutmose III (1490–1432 <span>BC<\/span>). During the Amarna period, it was ruled by a local prince in alliance with Jerusalem. One source from this period describes its beautiful gardens and the craftsmanship of its workers in metal, leather, and wood. When Palestine was divided among the 12 tribes, Joppa was assigned to Dan (Jos 19:46; <span>kjv<\/span> “Japho”). It was soon taken by the Philistines, who made it one of their seaports. David’s conquest of the Philistines restored Joppa to Israel, and during Solomon’s reign, it became a major port serving Jerusalem. Cedar logs were floated from Lebanon to Joppa and then transported to Jerusalem for use in building the temple (2 Chr 2:16).<\/p>\n<p>Joppa was the seaport to which Jonah fled in an attempt to avoid preaching to Nineveh (Jon 1:3); there, hoping to escape his responsibility, he boarded a ship bound for Tarshish. When Tiglath-pileser III invaded Philistia in 743 <span>BC<\/span>, Joppa probably was one of the Philistine cities that fell to him. Sennacherib, in his campaign of 701 <span>BC<\/span>, lists Joppa as one of the cities he occupied. Subsequent to that, little is known of it until the time of Ezra, when once again cedar logs from Lebanon were floated to Joppa and taken to Jerusalem for the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 3:7). During the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, Eshmunazar of Sidon controlled the city. When Sidon revolted against Persia and was destroyed by Artaxerxes III, Joppa apparently became a free city. Alexander the Great changed its name from Japho (its OT name) to Joppa and established a mint there, making it a city of some importance in the Greek Empire. Following Alexander’s death, his successors fought over the city several times. It was ruled by Egypt from 301 <span>BC<\/span> until 197 <span>BC<\/span>, when Antiochus III made it a part of the Seleucid kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>During the Maccabean period, Joppa had varied experiences. When Antiochus IV Epiphanes moved toward Jerusalem in 168 <span>BC<\/span> to enforce his program of Hellenization, he landed his troops at Joppa. In 164 <span>BC<\/span>, because of the success of Judas Maccabeus against the Seleucids, non-Jewish citizens drowned about 200 Jews. Judas retaliated by burning the harbor installations and the boats anchored there but was unable to conquer the city itself (2 Macc 12:3-9). In 147 <span>BC<\/span> Jonathan and Simon defeated Appollonius Taos, the Syrian general, and occupied Joppa for Alexander I Epiphanes, a contender for the Syrian throne (1 Macc 10:74-86). Through a series of political moves in the next few years Simon was able to fortify the city, expel the Greek inhabitants, and firmly establish Joppa as a Jewish city. During Pompey’s Roman occupation, Joppa was declared a free city; it was returned to the Jews by Julius Caesar (47 <span>BC<\/span>); and it was captured by Herod the Great in 37 <span>BC<\/span>. Hated by the residents of Joppa, Herod built a new port at Caesarea, about 40 miles (64.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. By the time of Jesus’ birth, Joppa was under the rule of Caesarea in the province of Syria (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 17.13.2-4).<\/p>\n<p>A Christian congregation appeared quite early in Joppa. Among the disciples living there were Dorcas, whom Peter raised from death (Acts 9:36-41), and Simon the tanner (v 43). From Joppa, Peter was called to Caesarea to present the gospel to the Roman centurion Cornelius (10:1-48).<\/p>\n<p>Joppa was a primary center of revolt against the Romans. It was destroyed by Vespasian in <span>AD<\/span> 68 and replaced with a Roman army camp. It was later rebuilt, and is known today as Jaffa, a suburb of Tel Aviv.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOPPA City about 35 miles (56.3 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem that served as Jerusalem’s seaport. Joppa was built on a rocky hill about 116 feet (35.4 meters) high, with a cape projecting beyond the coastline into the sea, and was the only natural harbor on the Mediterranean coast between Egypt and the OT town of Acco. Some 300 to 400 feet (91.4 to 121.9 meters) offshore a series of reefs formed a breakwater so that entrance into the harbor was gained from the north. It is possible that ...","summary_en":"JOPPA City about 35 miles (56.3 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem that served as Jerusalem’s seaport. Joppa was built on a rocky hill about 116 feet (35.4 meters) high, with a cape projecting beyond the coastline into the sea, and was the only natural harbor on the Mediterranean coast between Egypt and the OT town of Acco. Some 300 to 400 feet (91.4 to 121.9 meters) offshore a series of reefs formed a breakwater so that entrance into the harbor was gained from the north. It is possible that ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25013,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Me-Jarkon","title_en":"Me-Jarkon","content_ro":"<h3>ME-JARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Topographical designation in the description of Dan’s inheritance (Jos 19:46). It is probably not a settlement; Jarkon seems to be the name of the river (el-’Awjah) flowing across the coastal plain from the springs at Aphek to the coast four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. It was a formidable obstacle to north–south travel, but the numerous ancient sites along its banks testify to its importance as an entryway from the sea to the interior of the country.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ME-JARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Topographical designation in the description of Dan’s inheritance (Jos 19:46). It is probably not a settlement; Jarkon seems to be the name of the river (el-’Awjah) flowing across the coastal plain from the springs at Aphek to the coast four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. It was a formidable obstacle to north–south travel, but the numerous ancient sites along its banks testify to its importance as an entryway from the sea to the interior of the country.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ME-JARKON Topographical designation in the description of Dan’s inheritance (Jos 19:46). It is probably not a settlement; Jarkon seems to be the name of the river (el-’Awjah) flowing across the coastal plain from the springs at Aphek to the coast four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. It was a formidable obstacle to north–south travel, but the numerous ancient sites along its banks testify to its importance as an entryway from the sea to the interior of the country.","summary_en":"ME-JARKON Topographical designation in the description of Dan’s inheritance (Jos 19:46). It is probably not a settlement; Jarkon seems to be the name of the river (el-’Awjah) flowing across the coastal plain from the springs at Aphek to the coast four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of Joppa. It was a formidable obstacle to north–south travel, but the numerous ancient sites along its banks testify to its importance as an entryway from the sea to the interior of the country.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32345,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rakkon","title_en":"Rakkon","content_ro":"<h3>RAKKON<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities assigned to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:46). It is identified today with Tell er-Ragguat, one and a half miles (2.4 kilometers) north of the mouth of the Yorkon River.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAKKON<\/h3>\n<p>One of the cities assigned to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:46). It is identified today with Tell er-Ragguat, one and a half miles (2.4 kilometers) north of the mouth of the Yorkon River.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAKKON One of the cities assigned to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:46). It is identified today with Tell er-Ragguat, one and a half miles (2.4 kilometers) north of the mouth of the Yorkon River.","summary_en":"RAKKON One of the cities assigned to Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:46). It is identified today with Tell er-Ragguat, one and a half miles (2.4 kilometers) north of the mouth of the Yorkon River.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"47":[{"id":8488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dan (Place)","title_en":"Dan (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>DAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Phoenician city, originally named Leshem (Jos 19:47) or Laish (Jgs 18:7), which was conquered by Dan’s tribe when it migrated northward. The city lay a day’s journey from Sidon in the valley near Beth-rehob (v 28) at the southern base of Mt Hermon. It was the most northerly point of the ancient Israelite kingdom, and was used as a topographical marker in the phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” (cf. Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10).<\/li>\n<p>The site of Dan guarded a major trading route running between Damascus and Tyre, and was therefore an important commercial center. The Nahr el-Leddan, one of the principal sources of the Jordan, rose in the area, and this made the Huleh Valley below Dan lush and fertile even in the heat of summer. Consequently, the territory around the city produced grain and vegetable crops in abundance, as well as supplying the needs of flocks and herds adequately.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Iron Age, Dan was a prosperous city, as indicated in Judges 18:7, but by the middle of the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, it had been destroyed, evidently as a result of occupation by the Danites. When Jeroboam I became king of the separate northern kingdom of Israel, Dan was one of two shrines where the golden calves were worshiped. The high place at Tell el-Qadi (Tell of Dan), a square masonry platform some 61 by 20 feet (18.6 by 6.1 meters), has been excavated, but no trace of the golden image has been found.<\/p>\n\n<p>The cultic worship of Baal at Dan survived even Jehu’s drastic purge (2 Kgs 10:28-31), but during Ben-hadad’s reign, the city fell under Syrian control (cf. v 32). When the Syrians were attempting to ward off Assyrian attacks on their eastern border during the time of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), Dan was reconquered by the northern kingdom. It did not remain in Israelite hands for long, however, for its inhabitants were deported to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:6) by Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Nevertheless, the site continued to be inhabited (cf. Jer 4:15; 8:16), and its high place, or acropolis, at the northern extremity of the mound was used for worship. This particular area was enlarged periodically in both Greek and Roman times, and it is from the latter period that a statue of Aphrodite came. In NT times Dan was eclipsed by Caesarea, which was only a few miles distant. Josephus (<em>War<\/em> 4.1) recorded that Titus crushed a revolt at Dan in <span>AD<\/span> 67.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dan (Person); Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of an obscure Hebrew word (Vedan) in Ezekiel 27:19, alternately translated “wine,” a commodity from Uzal, in the <span>rsv<\/span>.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Uzal (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Phoenician city, originally named Leshem (Jos 19:47) or Laish (Jgs 18:7), which was conquered by Dan’s tribe when it migrated northward. The city lay a day’s journey from Sidon in the valley near Beth-rehob (v 28) at the southern base of Mt Hermon. It was the most northerly point of the ancient Israelite kingdom, and was used as a topographical marker in the phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” (cf. Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10).<\/li>\n<p>The site of Dan guarded a major trading route running between Damascus and Tyre, and was therefore an important commercial center. The Nahr el-Leddan, one of the principal sources of the Jordan, rose in the area, and this made the Huleh Valley below Dan lush and fertile even in the heat of summer. Consequently, the territory around the city produced grain and vegetable crops in abundance, as well as supplying the needs of flocks and herds adequately.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Iron Age, Dan was a prosperous city, as indicated in Judges 18:7, but by the middle of the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, it had been destroyed, evidently as a result of occupation by the Danites. When Jeroboam I became king of the separate northern kingdom of Israel, Dan was one of two shrines where the golden calves were worshiped. The high place at Tell el-Qadi (Tell of Dan), a square masonry platform some 61 by 20 feet (18.6 by 6.1 meters), has been excavated, but no trace of the golden image has been found.<\/p>\n\n<p>The cultic worship of Baal at Dan survived even Jehu’s drastic purge (2 Kgs 10:28-31), but during Ben-hadad’s reign, the city fell under Syrian control (cf. v 32). When the Syrians were attempting to ward off Assyrian attacks on their eastern border during the time of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), Dan was reconquered by the northern kingdom. It did not remain in Israelite hands for long, however, for its inhabitants were deported to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:6) by Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Nevertheless, the site continued to be inhabited (cf. Jer 4:15; 8:16), and its high place, or acropolis, at the northern extremity of the mound was used for worship. This particular area was enlarged periodically in both Greek and Roman times, and it is from the latter period that a statue of Aphrodite came. In NT times Dan was eclipsed by Caesarea, which was only a few miles distant. Josephus (<em>War<\/em> 4.1) recorded that Titus crushed a revolt at Dan in <span>AD<\/span> 67.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dan (Person); Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of an obscure Hebrew word (Vedan) in Ezekiel 27:19, alternately translated “wine,” a commodity from Uzal, in the <span>rsv<\/span>.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Uzal (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAN (Place) 1. Phoenician city, originally named Leshem (Jos 19:47) or Laish (Jgs 18:7), which was conquered by Dan’s tribe when it migrated northward. The city lay a day’s journey from Sidon in the valley near Beth-rehob (v 28) at the southern base of Mt Hermon. It was the most northerly point of the ancient Israelite kingdom, and was used as a topographical marker in the phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” (cf. Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10). The site of Dan guarded a major trading route running between D...","summary_en":"DAN (Place) 1. Phoenician city, originally named Leshem (Jos 19:47) or Laish (Jgs 18:7), which was conquered by Dan’s tribe when it migrated northward. The city lay a day’s journey from Sidon in the valley near Beth-rehob (v 28) at the southern base of Mt Hermon. It was the most northerly point of the ancient Israelite kingdom, and was used as a topographical marker in the phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” (cf. Jgs 20:1; 2 Sm 3:10). The site of Dan guarded a major trading route running between D...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8596,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Danite*","title_en":"Danite*","content_ro":"<h3>DANITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:47; 1 Chr 12:35). <em>See<\/em> Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:47; 1 Chr 12:35). <em>See<\/em> Dan, Tribe of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANITE* Member of Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:47; 1 Chr 12:35). See Dan, Tribe of.","summary_en":"DANITE* Member of Dan’s tribe (Jos 19:47; 1 Chr 12:35). See Dan, Tribe of.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20658,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22972,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leshem*","title_en":"Leshem*","content_ro":"<h3>LESHEM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Laish, the early name for the city of Dan, in Joshua 19:47 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Dan (Place) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LESHEM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Laish, the early name for the city of Dan, in Joshua 19:47 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Dan (Place) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LESHEM* Alternate name for Laish, the early name for the city of Dan, in Joshua 19:47 (nlt mg). See Dan (Place) #1.","summary_en":"LESHEM* Alternate name for Laish, the early name for the city of Dan, in Joshua 19:47 (nlt mg). See Dan (Place) #1.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45579,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:47","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:47","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","summary_en":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73205,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:47","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:47","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","summary_en":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100831,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:47","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:47","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","summary_en":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128457,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:47","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:47","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:47<\/strong> <em>The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land<\/em> because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to <em>Laish<\/em> (see Judg 18), which they renamed <em>Dan,<\/em> on the northern border of Israel’s territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","summary_en":"19:47 The tribe of Dan had trouble taking possession of their land because of the Philistines, so a group of Danites later moved northward to Laish (see Judg 18), which they renamed Dan, on the northern border of Israel’s territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"49":[{"id":41087,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Joshua","title_en":"Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","summary_en":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68713,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Joshua","title_en":"Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","summary_en":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96339,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Joshua","title_en":"Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","summary_en":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123965,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Joshua","title_en":"Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Joshua<\/h3>\n<p>Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immediately (Num 13:22–14:9), and as a result, of the twelve spies, only they entered Canaan (Num 14:30, 36-38).<\/p>\n<p>God directed Moses to designate Joshua as his successor (Num 27:15-23; Deut 34:9). After Moses died, Joshua led Israel across the Jordan River (Josh 1:1-18; 3:1–4:24) to the conquest of Jericho (6:1-27). When Israel suffered defeat at Ai, Joshua turned to the Lord and followed his instructions to purge Israel of sin (7:1-26); then Israel conquered Ai (8:1-29). Following God’s instructions to Moses (Deut 11:29-32; 27:1–28:68), Joshua built an altar on Mount Ebal (Josh 8:30-32) and read the blessings and curses of the covenant (8:33-35). Joshua conducted campaigns against two coalitions of Canaanite kings, a southern and a northern coalition (10:1-43; 11:1-15). Joshua’s victories in these campaigns opened the hill country to settlement by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>After supervising the allotment of territories to the tribes of Israel, Joshua received his own portion in the land of Ephraim (19:49-50). He established the cities of refuge (20:1-9) and the Levitical cities (ch 21:1-45) and released the 2½ tribes that had settled east of the Jordan River to return home (22:1-9). As he grew old, Joshua charged Israel to remain faithful to God (23:1–24:28). His farewell message at Shechem summarized God’s dealings with Israel and concluded with the familiar challenge, “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15). Joshua died at the age of 110 and was buried in Timnath-serah (Josh 24:29-30; Judg 2:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua demonstrated exceptional faithfulness throughout his life, except in dealing with the Gibeonites (Josh 9:1-27), when he neglected to consult the Lord regarding a decision. Israel served God faithfully under Joshua and the elders Joshua trained (Josh 24:31; Judg 2:7). Stephen mentions Joshua in his martyr’s sermon (Acts 7:45), and the writer of Hebrews uses Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as an illustration of faith (Heb 11:30). It is fitting that Joshua and Jesus are the same name in Hebrew: Joshua led Israel into physical salvation in Canaan; Jesus leads all who believe in him into eternal salvation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 17:8-15; Num 13:1–14:38; 27:15-23; 34:17; Deut 34:9; Josh 1:1-18; 4:1–24:33; Judg 2:6-9; Heb 11:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","summary_en":"Joshua Joshua, son of Nun, was Moses’ assistant and successor as Israel’s leader. Joshua brought the young nation across the Jordan River into the Promised Land of Canaan, faithfully following God’s leadership. Before Israel reached Mount Sinai, Joshua led Israel’s warriors when Amalek attacked Israel (Exod 17:8-13). Shortly thereafter, he was among the twelve men Moses sent to scout the Promised Land (Num 13:1-16). Against popular opinion, Joshua and Caleb urged Israel to occupy Canaan immed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20640,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joshua (Person)","title_en":"Joshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20818,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37325,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Timnath-Heres*, Timnath-Serah","title_en":"Timnath-Heres*, Timnath-Serah","content_ro":"<h3>TIMNATH-HERES*, TIMNATH-SERAH<\/h3>\n<p>The city that Joshua the son of Nun asked for and that was given to him as his inheritance when the land was divided among the tribes of Israel (Jos 19:49-50). Joshua rebuilt the city and settled there. When Joshua died, he was buried on the property located in the hill country of Ephraim, north of the mountain of Gaash (Jos 24:30). Judges 2:9 gives the same location, but the name is Timnath-heres (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), which means “territory [or portion] of the sun.” This seems to indicate that the city used to be a place for sun worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIMNATH-HERES*, TIMNATH-SERAH<\/h3>\n<p>The city that Joshua the son of Nun asked for and that was given to him as his inheritance when the land was divided among the tribes of Israel (Jos 19:49-50). Joshua rebuilt the city and settled there. When Joshua died, he was buried on the property located in the hill country of Ephraim, north of the mountain of Gaash (Jos 24:30). Judges 2:9 gives the same location, but the name is Timnath-heres (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), which means “territory [or portion] of the sun.” This seems to indicate that the city used to be a place for sun worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIMNATH-HERES*, TIMNATH-SERAH The city that Joshua the son of Nun asked for and that was given to him as his inheritance when the land was divided among the tribes of Israel (Jos 19:49-50). Joshua rebuilt the city and settled there. When Joshua died, he was buried on the property located in the hill country of Ephraim, north of the mountain of Gaash (Jos 24:30). Judges 2:9 gives the same location, but the name is Timnath-heres (see nlt mg), which means “territory [or portion] of the sun.” Thi...","summary_en":"TIMNATH-HERES*, TIMNATH-SERAH The city that Joshua the son of Nun asked for and that was given to him as his inheritance when the land was divided among the tribes of Israel (Jos 19:49-50). Joshua rebuilt the city and settled there. When Joshua died, he was buried on the property located in the hill country of Ephraim, north of the mountain of Gaash (Jos 24:30). Judges 2:9 gives the same location, but the name is Timnath-heres (see nlt mg), which means “territory [or portion] of the sun.” Thi...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45580,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:49","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:49","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","summary_en":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73206,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:49","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:49","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","summary_en":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100832,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:49","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:49","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","summary_en":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128458,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:49","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:49","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:49-50<\/strong> The <em>piece of land<\/em> given <em>to Joshua<\/em> closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","summary_en":"19:49-50 The piece of land given to Joshua closes the section on the allocation of land to the tribes of Israel (see study note on 14:1–19:51).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"51":[{"id":1098,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Allotment of the Land","title_en":"Allotment of the Land","content_ro":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. The same method was used at other times in Bible history as a means of determining the divine will. Besides avoiding arguments or intertribal fighting, the procedure had theological significance. The outcome was placed solely in God’s hands (see Prv 16:33). The Lord thereby reminded his people that the land was his to apportion as he saw fit. In Numbers 26:52-56 the Lord’s order for such a lottery was given (see also Nm 34). In Joshua chapters 13–19 the allotment was planned and carried out at Shiloh (19:51).<\/p>\n<p>Assignment of the southern part of Transjordan to two and a half tribes had already been made by Moses (Nm 32). West of the Jordan the remaining nine and a half tribes received portions by lot after their faithful leader, Caleb, got his choice of the region around Hebron. The order in which the tribes were named somewhat follows their relative locations. The territory of the major southern tribe, Judah, included Caleb’s lands and extended north to the yet unconquered Jerusalem. Next came the large central portions of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the patriarch Joseph’s sons. Benjamin’s area lay between Judah and Ephraim. Then Simeon’s territory was named, lying in southern Judah. The remaining tribes listed in Joshua 19, with one exception, received territorial inheritance north of Manasseh. They were Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan. Dan’s tribe drew an allotment west of Judah, but because the Philistines held the coastline, Dan’s tribe migrated north and renamed the captured city of Lachish for their tribal ancestor, Dan (see Jgs 18). From then on, “from Dan to Beersheba” meant all of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Such a method of assigning real estate seems strange to present-day economics, yet with respect to the customs of that time, it made theological sense. Kings and emperors in the ancient Near East were considered sovereign representatives of their gods. They held the ownership right to all lands and gave portions to whomever they pleased. From the time of the exodus, Israel was a theocracy. God was king. No human authority was sovereign or possessed sovereign property rights. God was the Israelites’ sole benefactor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","summary_en":"ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Assignment of large territories of the Promised Land of Canaan to the 12 tribes of Israel following the Conquest. The specific territory in Canaan to be occupied by each of the 12 tribes of Israel was not left to their own initiative. They were not to possess whatever land they could wrest for themselves by military conquest. Rather, they were ordered to fight unitedly and then divide the total area by casting lots—a method analogous to drawing straws or tossing a coin. ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10365,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eleazar","title_en":"Eleazar","content_ro":"<h3>ELEAZAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4).<\/li>\n<p>Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:3-4). Eleazar was installed as high priest by Moses when Aaron died on Mt Hor (Nm 20:25-28; Dt 10:6). He was then considered Moses’ assistant (Nm 26:1-3, 63; 27:2, 21). Joshua was commissioned by Moses in the presence of Eleazar (27:18-23). In the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Eleazar served together as leaders. It was Eleazar’s function as Joshua’s counselor to inquire of the Lord (v 21). He also had his share in the census taking at Shittim. He took part in the partitioning of Canaan, the east bank (34:17), and the west bank (Jos 14:1; 17:4; 19:51; 21:1).<\/p>\n<p>When Eleazar died, he was highly regarded and memorialized in the land of Ephraim (Jos 24:33); his son Phinehas followed him as high priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the oversight of the priests, 16 divisions were assigned to Eleazar’s descendants and eight to Ithamar’s (1 Chr 24). The ancestry of the prominent priests Zadok and Ezra is traced to Eleazar (1 Chr 6:3-15, 50-53; 24:3; Ezr 7:1-5). In King Solomon’s time the priests of Zadok replaced Abiathar, a descendant of Ithamar (1 Kgs 2:26-27, 35). The descendants of Eleazar would be the only ones permitted to minister in Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 44:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron.<\/p>\n<li>2. Abinadab’s son, charged with caring for the ark by the people of Kiriath-jearim, when it was brought from Beth-shemesh and placed in the “house of Abinadab on the hill” (1 Sm 7:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Dodo’s son, one of the three mighty men whose exploits against the Philistines gained him great fame (2 Sm 23:9; 1 Chr 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite, son of Mahli. Eleazar died without sons, so his daughters were married to their first cousins (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest descended from Phinehas. This Eleazar helped inventory the temple treasure on returning from the exile with Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>6. Parosh’s son, listed with others who divorced their foreign wives in the reform under Ezra (Ezr 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>7. Priest in attendance at the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem following the exile (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>8. Person in the lineage of Joseph, husband of Mary (Mt 1:15). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELEAZAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4).<\/li>\n<p>Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:3-4). Eleazar was installed as high priest by Moses when Aaron died on Mt Hor (Nm 20:25-28; Dt 10:6). He was then considered Moses’ assistant (Nm 26:1-3, 63; 27:2, 21). Joshua was commissioned by Moses in the presence of Eleazar (27:18-23). In the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Eleazar served together as leaders. It was Eleazar’s function as Joshua’s counselor to inquire of the Lord (v 21). He also had his share in the census taking at Shittim. He took part in the partitioning of Canaan, the east bank (34:17), and the west bank (Jos 14:1; 17:4; 19:51; 21:1).<\/p>\n<p>When Eleazar died, he was highly regarded and memorialized in the land of Ephraim (Jos 24:33); his son Phinehas followed him as high priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the oversight of the priests, 16 divisions were assigned to Eleazar’s descendants and eight to Ithamar’s (1 Chr 24). The ancestry of the prominent priests Zadok and Ezra is traced to Eleazar (1 Chr 6:3-15, 50-53; 24:3; Ezr 7:1-5). In King Solomon’s time the priests of Zadok replaced Abiathar, a descendant of Ithamar (1 Kgs 2:26-27, 35). The descendants of Eleazar would be the only ones permitted to minister in Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 44:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron.<\/p>\n<li>2. Abinadab’s son, charged with caring for the ark by the people of Kiriath-jearim, when it was brought from Beth-shemesh and placed in the “house of Abinadab on the hill” (1 Sm 7:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Dodo’s son, one of the three mighty men whose exploits against the Philistines gained him great fame (2 Sm 23:9; 1 Chr 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite, son of Mahli. Eleazar died without sons, so his daughters were married to their first cousins (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest descended from Phinehas. This Eleazar helped inventory the temple treasure on returning from the exile with Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>6. Parosh’s son, listed with others who divorced their foreign wives in the reform under Ezra (Ezr 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>7. Priest in attendance at the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem following the exile (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>8. Person in the lineage of Joseph, husband of Mary (Mt 1:15). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELEAZAR 1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4). Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:...","summary_en":"ELEAZAR 1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4). Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20853,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joshua","title_en":"Book of Joshua","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, <span>nlt<\/span>). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 <span>BC<\/span> and 1045 <span>BC<\/span> (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27-31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4-6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> or even an exilic date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofInterpretation\">Problems of Interpretation<\/p>\n<h5>Holy War<\/h5>\n<p>The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16-18; Jos 6:21; 8:24-26; 10:10, 28-30, 35-42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2-5, 25-26; 12:30-31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21-35; Jos 7:4-5; 8:5, 16-17; 9:1-2; 10:1-6; 11:1-5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21-22; Dt 20:10-11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the <span>Lord<\/span> himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the <span>Lord<\/span> had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, <span>niv<\/span>). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of the Conquest<\/h5>\n<p>Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1-3, 16-19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1-7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24<\/h5>\n<h6>The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2-3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24-26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7-8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.<\/p>\n<h6>Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12<\/h6>\n<p>The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13-15; cf. Nm 32:20-27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16-18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5-9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).<\/p>\n<p>The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus\/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10-11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27-28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1-9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21-24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).<\/p>\n<p>The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1-9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10-12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4-14; 6:1-5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h6>Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27<\/h6>\n<p>The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14-15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).<\/p>\n<h6>Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29<\/h6>\n<p>Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2-5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6-9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1-2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3-19) and the population execrated (vv 20-26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28-29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30-35<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33-35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9-26).<\/p>\n<h6>Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1-27<\/h6>\n<p>The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8-11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11-14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9-10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28-35; 1 Kgs 9:15-21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.<\/p>\n<h6>The Southern Campaign, 10:1-43<\/h6>\n<p>The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7-9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12-14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16-27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29-43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).<\/p>\n<h6>The Northern Campaign, 11:1-15<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1-5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10-13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10-11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9-15).<\/p>\n<h6>Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19-20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.<\/p>\n<p>The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2-5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<h5>The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34<\/h5>\n<h6>The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1-7<\/h6>\n<p>Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29-30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2-7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Division of Transjordan, 13:8-33<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32-33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12-17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15-23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24-28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29-31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20-24; 35:1-8).<\/p>\n<h6>The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6-15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49-50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36-38).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah, 15:1-63 (cf. Jgs 1:10-15, 20)<\/h6>\n<p>The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2-12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21-32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33-47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48-60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61-62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18<\/h6>\n<p>These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22-26; Dt 33:13-17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29-31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1-3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5-9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3-6; cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7-11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15-18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.<\/p>\n<h6>Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51<\/h6>\n<p>The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3-10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11-28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1-9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10-16), Issachar (vv 17-23), Asher (vv 24-31), and Naphtali (vv 32-39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40-48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).<\/p>\n<h6>Conclusion, 19:49-51<\/h6>\n<p>The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1-14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).<\/p>\n<h6>Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45<\/h6>\n<p>According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9-34; Dt 4:41-43; 19:1-10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1-42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21-24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4-5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9-19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.<\/p>\n<p>With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43-45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1-34<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1-4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5-8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15-20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21-30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30-31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, too” (v 34, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33<\/h5>\n<p>The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to the Leaders, 23:1-16<\/h6>\n<p>Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.<\/p>\n<h6>Address to Israel, 24:1-28<\/h6>\n<p>The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25-28; cf. 8:30-35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2-4), exodus (vv 5-7), and conquest (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14-15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16-18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19-20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<h6>End of an Era, 24:29-33<\/h6>\n<p>The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1-2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29-30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA, Book of First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1-9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29-33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land. ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45581,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:51","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","summary_en":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:51","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","summary_en":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:51","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","summary_en":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iosua 19:51","title_en":"Study Note: Iosua 19:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:51<\/strong> After Joshua received his inheritance, <em>the division of the land was completed<\/em>. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","summary_en":"19:51 After Joshua received his inheritance, the division of the land was completed. Joshua served God and led Israel faithfully for many years, and God was gracious to Joshua.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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