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{"verseMap":{"8":[{"id":48477,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","summary_en":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76103,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","summary_en":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103729,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","summary_en":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131355,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:8","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:8-11<\/strong> A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • <em>You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust:<\/em> This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • <em>back to dust:<\/em> This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • <em>You guided my conception and formed me in the womb:<\/em> The Hebrew terminology (literally <em>You poured me out like milk and curdled me like cheese<\/em>) evokes graphic images of a newborn baby still covered with the creamy substance called vernix.<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","summary_en":"10:8-11 A succession of images describes God’s role in creating Job. • You formed me with your hands . . . made me from dust: This was how a potter made a vessel (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:1-12). Although the potter has incontestable sovereignty over the clay (Isa 45:9; Jer 18:5-12; Rom 9:20-25), Job was questioning God. • back to dust: This common motif in Job represents the temporary nature of life (Job 4:19; 7:9-10, 21; 14:1-2, 10; see Gen 3:19). • You guided my conception and formed me in the womb...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":6246,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cheese","title_en":"Cheese","content_ro":"<h3>CHEESE<\/h3>\n<p>Milk product produced by curdling milk, draining the whey, pressing the curds into cakes, and drying them. One of the earliest biblical references to cheese is in Job 10:10: “Didst thou not pour me out like milk and curdle me like cheese?” (<span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHEESE<\/h3>\n<p>Milk product produced by curdling milk, draining the whey, pressing the curds into cakes, and drying them. One of the earliest biblical references to cheese is in Job 10:10: “Didst thou not pour me out like milk and curdle me like cheese?” (<span>rsv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHEESE Milk product produced by curdling milk, draining the whey, pressing the curds into cakes, and drying them. One of the earliest biblical references to cheese is in Job 10:10: “Didst thou not pour me out like milk and curdle me like cheese?” (rsv). See Food and Food Preparation.","summary_en":"CHEESE Milk product produced by curdling milk, draining the whey, pressing the curds into cakes, and drying them. One of the earliest biblical references to cheese is in Job 10:10: “Didst thou not pour me out like milk and curdle me like cheese?” (rsv). See Food and Food Preparation.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12484,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Food and Food Preparation","title_en":"Food and Food Preparation","content_ro":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","summary_en":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":23348,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lion of the Tribe of Judah","title_en":"Lion of the Tribe of Judah","content_ro":"<h3>LION OF THE TRIBE OF JUDAH<\/h3>\n<p>A title of the Messiah that appears only in Revelation 5:5: “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the heir to David’s throne, has conquered” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This is an allusion to the messianic promise of Genesis 49:9-10, “Judah is a young lion. . . . The scepter will not depart from Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The expression summarizes the OT hope that the Messiah would come as a conquering hero, delivering his people from every form of spiritual, political, and social evil (cf. 2 Esd 11:37; 12:31). The OT frequently employs the lion as a symbol of power and the complete ability to subdue one’s enemies (Jb 10:16; Ps 10:9; Ez 1:10; Dn 7:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The author of Revelation expressed the belief of all Christians—that Christ is the deliverer who would defeat all the powers of evil. However, in contrast to the OT hope, the deliverer comes not as the conquering Lion of military power, but rather as the Lamb, who suffers and is sacrificed for the sins of his people (Rv 5:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LION OF THE TRIBE OF JUDAH<\/h3>\n<p>A title of the Messiah that appears only in Revelation 5:5: “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the heir to David’s throne, has conquered” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This is an allusion to the messianic promise of Genesis 49:9-10, “Judah is a young lion. . . . The scepter will not depart from Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The expression summarizes the OT hope that the Messiah would come as a conquering hero, delivering his people from every form of spiritual, political, and social evil (cf. 2 Esd 11:37; 12:31). The OT frequently employs the lion as a symbol of power and the complete ability to subdue one’s enemies (Jb 10:16; Ps 10:9; Ez 1:10; Dn 7:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The author of Revelation expressed the belief of all Christians—that Christ is the deliverer who would defeat all the powers of evil. However, in contrast to the OT hope, the deliverer comes not as the conquering Lion of military power, but rather as the Lamb, who suffers and is sacrificed for the sins of his people (Rv 5:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LION OF THE TRIBE OF JUDAH A title of the Messiah that appears only in Revelation 5:5: “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the heir to David’s throne, has conquered” (nlt). This is an allusion to the messianic promise of Genesis 49:9-10, “Judah is a young lion. . . . The scepter will not depart from Judah” (nlt). The expression summarizes the OT hope that the Messiah would come as a conquering hero, delivering his people from every form of spiritual, political, and social evil (cf. 2 Esd 11:37; ...","summary_en":"LION OF THE TRIBE OF JUDAH A title of the Messiah that appears only in Revelation 5:5: “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the heir to David’s throne, has conquered” (nlt). This is an allusion to the messianic promise of Genesis 49:9-10, “Judah is a young lion. . . . The scepter will not depart from Judah” (nlt). The expression summarizes the OT hope that the Messiah would come as a conquering hero, delivering his people from every form of spiritual, political, and social evil (cf. 2 Esd 11:37; ...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":19978,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Job","title_en":"Book of Job","content_ro":"<h3>JOB, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book belonging to the scriptural category called the Writings.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of the book of Job is a difficult one. The difficulty is compounded not only by the lack of ascription of authorship to any individual but also by the structure of the book which, according to some scholars, is a composite consisting of several literary works.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars who think the book is a composite work base their views on alleged incongruities existing among the various sections. The prologue (chs 1–2) and the epilogue (42:7-17), for example, are seen as separate from the body of the book because they seem to present Job as a man of perfect moral character. The dialogues, however, picture a somewhat more human Job whose utterances about God are at times brash and shocking.<\/p>\n<p>It is true that Job is depicted as a man of perfect moral character in the prologue. But it should be noted that while he refuses his wife’s suggestion to curse God, an account recorded in the prologue (2:9-10), he does not curse God in the dialogues either. The very point of the book seems to be that even one of the highest moral character must struggle with the ways of God in this world. Only after the series of misfortunes recorded in chapters 1 and 2, and the period of inner struggle that no doubt transpired during the seven days and seven nights before he began to speak (2:11-13), did Job find those deep inner questions that the book deals with. Job’s high moral character is quite evident in the dialogues, for throughout, even though he cannot comprehend God, he speaks the truth before him.<\/p>\n<p>Other portions alleged to be additions to the book are the speeches of Elihu (32–37), the discourse of God (38–41), and the discourse on wisdom in chapter 28. Some scholars think the author of the final version borrowed these existing works to provide a literary structure for his own work.<\/p>\n<p>The main structure of the book, consisting of prologue, dialogues, and an epilogue, need not necessarily be regarded as the result of a complex process of editing. The Code of Hammurabi, for example, has a similar structure, as does an ancient Egyptian work called <em>A Dispute over Suicide.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>With regard to the problem of authorship, it seems best to acknowledge that the author is anonymous. His theology is certainly Yahwistic; thus, he was probably a Hebrew. His literary skills were remarkable, for he has produced one of the finest works known through the ages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since the authorship of the book is in question, so is the date of the book. Most modern scholars place the book in the postexilic period, around the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. However, some place it toward the end of the exile. Others put it in the Solomonic era, while still others place it in the period of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>The internal evidence points to a very early setting for the book. There are no Levitical institutions cited. Job sacrifices for his family as in the period before the priesthood (1:5). The wealth of Job, given in terms of livestock, seems to reflect the patriarchal milieu (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The language of the book may also point to an early date. Certain linguistic elements indicate more archaic forms of Hebrew, as preserved in the epic material from Ugarit. It may be that Job himself lived in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. If the book—or part of it—was written then, it may represent the first written material to find its way into the biblical canon. The book may have come into its final form in the Solomonic era, when so much of the Hebrew Wisdom Literature was produced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Job belongs to the body of OT materials known as the Wisdom Literature. This literature deals with the basic issues of human life. The Israelites were not the only ancient people to produce Wisdom Literature. This type of material came out of pagan cultures as well, and often represents efforts to explain the course of human events within the structure of pagan religion.<\/p>\n<p>Several ancient works similar to the OT book of Job are known from ancient cultures. A Sumerian book exists that does not compare with the biblical book, either in literary scope or depth of feeling. It depicts the plight of a young man whose sorrow was turned to joy as a result of extended pleading to his personal deity. According to Sumerian thought, the gods were responsible for evil as well as good. Only placation of some kind could prevent the evil they might do. There is no attempt to philosophize or expound the problem of the presence of evil in the world.<\/p>\n<p>A Babylonian book, commonly titled <em>I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom,<\/em> is philosophically similar to the Sumerian <em>Job.<\/em> In the work the writer describes his suffering in vivid terminology. No one can help him. He wonders whether the ritual obligations of his pagan religion really are pleasing to a god. An emissary of the god Marduk appears to him in a dream and relieves his suffering. The work ends with a section of praise to Marduk in which occurs the affirmation that the offerings he gave the gods served to gladden the hearts of the gods.<\/p>\n<p>Another work, “A Dialogue about Human Misery,” is also similar to the biblical book of Job. It struggles with the fact that worship of the deities seems to make no difference in the quality of one’s life. A figure in this work reminds the sufferer that the ways of the gods are difficult to understand, and man is naturally perverse. The sufferer appeals to the gods, but the dialogue ends at that point with no resolution to the problem.<\/p>\n<p>These literary works are not comparable to the OT book of Job theologically or philosophically. They offer only a fatalistic outlook on life and understand life to be governed by the capricious will of the gods. However, these documents, which date variously between the second and first millennia <span>BC<\/span>, may provide us with the literary ground from which the book of Job sprang. That is, the book of Job may present the inspired answer to the deep questions that were being considered at this time in history. Thus, this type of literature may argue for an early date for the book of Job.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The question of the central purpose of the book of Job has been a serious one in biblical scholarship for ages. It is difficult to assert that the purpose of the book is to present the solution to the problem of evil, for at the very point where an answer is expected, God asks questions instead of giving answers.<\/p>\n<p>Some have suggested that the central purpose is to answer the question “Why do the righteous suffer?” It is true that the book has much to do with this question, but it too presents various problems. When one comes to the end of the book, he or she has only the words of the comforters and the statements of Elihu relating to that question—not a great deal at all. Then one may wonder why we were given the long dialogues with their record of Job’s internal struggles. When God speaks from the whirlwind, we find no concern to explain why the righteous suffer. Job is simply led to accept his place in the universe.<\/p>\n<p>It seems best to adopt another approach to the book. In attempting to find the central theme of any literary work, one should look to the prologue and the epilogue. In the prologue one can see what the author intends to do, and in the epilogue the reader will find the author’s understanding of what the author actually has done.<\/p>\n<p>In the prologue of Job, the author deftly establishes an atmosphere of suspense. We are told of Job’s perfect moral character. Then Satan taunts, “Take away everything he has, and he will surely curse you to your face!” (1:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). We wonder whether Job will curse God and thus deny his faith, but then we hear his great affirmation of trust: “The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me everything I had, and the <span>Lord<\/span> has taken it away. Praise the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>!” (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>The writer then sets up another suspenseful situation when Satan proposes to afflict Job. To this trial is added the discouraging words of Job’s wife: “Curse God and die.” Again we wonder whether this trial will destroy Job’s faith. The suspense is broken when we read that “in all this, Job said nothing wrong” (2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The writer then introduces Job’s friends into the narrative. We are told that they remained silent for seven days. We wonder what is going on in Job’s mind. Is he still the man of staunch faith, or is his trust being eroded as the disease eats at his flesh? When Job speaks and curses the day of his birth, the suspense becomes intense. The writer has raised a question in our minds: Will Job’s faith remain secure?<\/p>\n<p>At times we think it will. Job makes several great affirmations of faith. He states that God will vindicate him. One of the greatest affirmations of the book occurs in 19:25-27 (<span>nlt<\/span>): “But as for me, I know that my Redeemer lives, and that he will stand upon the earth at last. And after my body has decayed, yet in my body I will see God! I will see him for myself. Yes, I will see him with my own eyes. I am overwhelmed at the thought!” At other times Job expresses deep doubts about God’s orderly control of the universe. The suspense continues. Throughout the dialogues we trace the pattern of Job’s struggle. It is an emotional struggle in which Job speaks from the depths of despair and the heights of triumphant faith.<\/p>\n<p>In the epilogue the suspense is resolved. Job’s trials have not destroyed or even eroded his faith. He emerges triumphant, with a humble faith. He can finally say to God, “I know that you can do anything, and no one can stop you. You ask, ‘Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorance?’ It is I. And I was talking about things I did not understand, things far too wonderful for me” (42:2-3, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the writer is clear. At the outset he has raised the question “Will Job’s faith endure in spite of trial?” The dialogues have heightened the suspense, and the epilogue resolves it. Job has remained faithful to God in the midst of his suffering. We learn that Job’s faith is genuine.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Job, therefore, is a treatise on faith and the role that suffering plays in faith. The book of Job teaches that the truly righteous person will remain faithful to God in spite of the seeming delay of God’s justice. He may not be able to comprehend all that God does in history, but his faith in God’s good plan and wise providence will remain secure. This aspect of faith is one facet of the total spectrum of faith in the Bible. It does not allow for works but is totally dependent on God.<\/p>\n<p>The same relationship between faith and suffering may be found in the NT as well. In James 1:12 trials and faithfulness are woven together in the word “Blessed is the man who endures trial, for when he has stood the test he will receive the crown of life which God has promised to those who love him” (<span>rsv<\/span>; see also 1 Pt 1:3-7). According to these passages, trials provide the test of faith and thus reveal whether one’s faith is true or false. Faith that is not true will not stand the test of suffering (Mt 13:20-21). The book of Job connects faith and trials; it portrays the nature of a genuine faith, a faith unbroken by suffering.<\/p>\n<p>There are other principles in this rich book. It teaches that sin brings punishment. There is truth in the words of the comforters that is corroborated by Scripture. Yet this is but a small part of the role of suffering in life. The book also teaches that suffering has a didactic function, for it is chastening from the Almighty. In the section in which God speaks from the whirlwind, we learn that suffering is part of the structure of things and that we must submit to the wisdom of the Creator. In this section God reveals himself personally. Job could say, “I had heard about you before, but now I have seen you with my own eyes” (42:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). When we experience trials, we need a God who is near much more than a philosophical treatise on the problem of evil. Another emphasis is the role of suffering in producing true righteousness. While Job was depicted as a righteous man at the beginning of the book, his righteousness lacked what suffering could give it. At the end of the book, Job is a more humble man, one who sees his role in the universe and who has submitted to the wisdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Prologue (1:1–2:13)<\/h5>\n<p>This section of the book describes the events that led to the suffering of Job. He is pictured at the outset as a man of wealth with a family for whom he cared deeply.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic scene set in heaven, Satan appears and is asked by the Lord, “Have you noticed my servant Job? He is the finest man in all the earth—a man of complete integrity. He fears God and will have nothing to do with evil” (1:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Satan’s reply is “But take away everything he has, and he will surely curse you to your face!” (v 11). There follows the first of Job’s great calamities, the loss of his family and his possessions.<\/p>\n<p>Another encounter between the Lord and Satan leads to the physical suffering of Job. It is this loathsome disease that provides the context for the dialogues that follow. In all of this the writer is careful to tell us that Job did not sin. He has resisted his wife’s plea to curse God. He has resisted the temptation to forsake God because of the loss of his children. But suddenly the placid picture ends with dialogues as we listen to Job’s complaints. We wonder, has Job given up his faith in God?<\/p>\n<p>Three of Job’s friends have come to comfort him. They sit silent in his presence for seven days, reluctant to speak. After the period of silence they begin their dialogues with Job.<\/p>\n<h5>The Dialogues (3:1–31:40)<\/h5>\n<h6>The First Cycle (3:1–14:22)<\/h6>\n<p>Job’s complaint, recorded in chapter 3, questions the wisdom of God in allowing him to be born. He wonders why life was given to one whose lot in life is to suffer.<\/p>\n<p>Eliphaz is the first of Job’s friends to speak. A polite man on the surface, he is heartless underneath. His answer is that Job must have sinned—why else would he be suffering so (4:7-11)? Eliphaz clearly believes that Job’s questioning represents a negative attitude toward God. He appeals to Job to trust in the Lord (4:8) and give up his vexation toward God, since his anger will lead only to ruin (5:2). He sees a positive element in suffering, for he affirms that it is chastening from the Almighty (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Job responds by pointing out that his vexation is warranted in view of the terrible suffering he is enduring (6:1-7). He also complains that Eliphaz is in the wrong in not showing him kindness, likening him to a wadi in the desert that offers no water in the hot, dry season (vv 14-23).<\/p>\n<p>The next comforter, Bildad, is even more heartless than Eliphaz. He, too, repeats the accusation that Job has sinned. His pitiless attitude is evident in his reference to Job’s children, blaming their deaths on probable sin in their lives (8:4).<\/p>\n<p>Bildad, like Eliphaz, appeals to Job to turn to God (8:5), assuring him that God will surely respond (v 6). He pictures Job’s misfortunes as the result of turning from God (vv 11-19) but assures him that God will not reject a blameless man (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s response to Bildad begins with a poignant question: “How can a person be declared innocent in the eyes of God?” (9:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This question is followed by an eloquent statement in which Job pictures the magnitude of God’s power as seen in the universe (vv 3-12). Job stands before the mighty God completely helpless to withstand his power. He protests that he cannot contend with such a God, nor protest his innocence before him, for he is too powerful to oppose.<\/p>\n<p>Job also complains that he cannot gain a fair hearing from God because God believes him guilty. The fact that God has punished him with his affliction proves that he does not regard him as innocent (9:14-24). Job continues his response and again questions God’s wisdom in bringing him into existence (10:18-22).<\/p>\n<p>The next to speak is Zophar. He also accuses Job of sin (11:4-6). In an insulting statement he says that God “knows those who are false, and he takes note of all their sins. An empty-headed person won’t become wise any more than a wild donkey can bear human offspring” (vv 11-12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s anger is kindled by Zophar’s insulting accusations (12:2-3), and he calls on God to withdraw his hand from him and demands that God speak (13:20-28).<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Cycle (15:1–21:34)<\/h6>\n<p>The second cycle of discourses continues in the same pattern as the first. Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar continue their accusations, attributing Job’s misfortune to sin in his life. But as the narrative continues, the speakers begin to become more involved in their own assertions, and they no longer answer each other’s arguments as directly as they did in the first series of dialogues.<\/p>\n<h6>The Third Cycle (22:1–31:40)<\/h6>\n<p>In the third series of dialogues only Eliphaz and Bildad speak. The accusations of sin in Job become even more pointed and cruel. Eliphaz says, “It [your suffering] is because of your wickedness! Your guilt has no limit!” (22:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This third dialogue is unusual in that Job speaks more than he does in the others. While Bildad’s argument extends for only six verses, Job’s reply goes on for six chapters (chs 26–31).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 31 is an important one. In it Job protests his innocence. It is a chapter in which Job’s sincerity cannot be doubted. He affirms that he has been morally pure (vv 1-4), he has not been deceitful (vv 5-8), he has not been guilty of adultery (vv 9-12), he has concern for others (vv 13-23), he has not trusted in wealth (vv 24-28). He concludes with a general affirmation of his innocence (vv 29-40).<\/p>\n<p>A pattern begins to develop. Job gradually moves away from his friends in the discussion. They become more insistent on sin as the cause of his misfortunes, and Job more firmly asserts his innocence. The writer of the book deftly weaves the account so that the reader can find little that is unorthodox in the statements of the friends. Yet while we may agree with their words, we cannot approve their attitudes. It is true that sin brings punishment, but the friends emphasize only that. The next friend, Elihu, will point out another function of suffering.<\/p>\n<p>We hear the ring of truth in Job’s protestations of innocence. But if we believe Job and also believe the comforters, we have the same dilemma as Job. We do not know where the truth lies. We do not know why Job is suffering.<\/p>\n<h5>The Speech of Elihu (32:1–37:24)<\/h5>\n<p>Elihu is a young man who listens to Job and to his fellow comforters with growing impatience (32:3). He is overly sensitive about his youth (vv 6-22), but when he speaks, he reveals an understanding of suffering that is more mature than that of his companions.<\/p>\n<p>Elihu emphasizes the fact that God speaks in many ways and that suffering is chastening (33:19), which reveals the goodness of God (vv 29-33). While this thought was found in Eliphaz’s first speech (5:17), it is given greater prominence by Elihu, who emphasizes a dimension of suffering that reveals the love of God. But still one feels that the whole answer has not been given. Another dimension follows in the words of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Voice from the Whirlwind and Job’s Response (38:1–42:6)<\/h5>\n<p>God speaks in this section. He poses one question after another to Job, all having to do with some aspect of the Creation. God asks, “Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth?” Then, in a note of sarcasm, he adds, “Tell me, if you know so much” (38:4, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God refers to the seas and asks Job who made the ocean basins (38:8-11). He pictures the rising dawn and asks Job, “Have you ever commanded the morning to appear and caused the dawn to rise in the east?” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Further questions relate to light (vv 19-21), snow (vv 22-24), rain (vv 25-30), the constellations (vv 31-33), storms (vv 34-38), and animals (38:39–39:30). Job is made to realize the vastness of God’s power as revealed in the Creation. Job must have felt rather small and insignificant as he contemplated God’s might.<\/p>\n<p>But the questions are meant to accomplish more than to make Job feel small. They are meant to make him feel ashamed of his presumption as well. The sarcasm in this section is particularly biting, and one can imagine Job sinking deeper into the ash heap with each question. In the section dealing with light (38:19-21, <span>nlt<\/span>), the questions “Where does the light come from, and where does the darkness go? Can you take it to its home? Do you know how to get there?” are followed by “But of course you know all this! For you were born before it was all created, and you are so very experienced!” And in the section dealing with the constellations God asks Job, “Can you hold back the movements of the stars? Are you able to restrain the Pleiades or Orion?” (v 31).<\/p>\n<p>Job has been somewhat brash in his statements to God in the dialogues. He has demanded that God speak to him (13:22), and has accused God of injustice (19:6-7; 24:1; 27:2). Now, as he is reminded of the power of the Almighty, Job begins to recognize his proper place in the universe.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial questions in this long series are those in 40:15–41:34. Here, in an unusual sequence, God draws Job’s attention to behemoth (40:15) and leviathan (41:1). While some scholars see these as mythical figures, it is most probable that these, like the others cited throughout this section, are literary depictions of ordinary animals known for their great size and strength. It is suggested by many scholars that behemoth is the hippopotamus and leviathan the crocodile. The contexts in which these animals are described seem to support this. These references to two powerful animals end the section in which the voice of God speaks from the whirlwind. It is a section filled with suspense. At the end of it, the reader finds that Job has learned his lesson (42:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>There is an important reason for these questions that came to Job with such insistent force. Job has been led to see that he does not control the universe—God does. Job is forced to face the power of God and learn that he is only part of this vast structure that reflects God’s almighty power. By demanding that God speak to him, Job was attempting to control God. By implying that God was unjust, he was making a judgment on God, thus making himself equal, if not superior, to God. God demands that Job face the power displayed in the universe and repeat his petulant words. Job wanted a God he could control; God demands submission. Job wanted a world run his way; God created a world to be run his way. Job had manufactured an illusory God, one who should obey his own whims. By recognizing God’s sovereign control in this world, he is led to see that suffering has a purpose. Job may not recognize that purpose, but it is part of the creation of the Almighty. It is no wonder that Job begins to enter into a settled peace and acknowledge God’s sovereignty (42:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>This section of questions is followed by a poignant response from Job. He confesses God’s might (42:2). He admits that he did not fully understand things too wonderful for him (v 3), and he repents in dust and ashes (v 6).<\/p>\n<h5>The Epilogue (42:7-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The final part of the book begins with a denunciation of Job’s comforters. They are condemned because they did not speak that which was right (42:7). This seemed most unusual, since their words have seemed quite orthodox. Yet, in the final analysis, they did not say what was right because their answer to the problem of suffering was only a partial answer, and because it was partial, it was dangerous. It caricatured God as an austere being who used suffering only to punish sin. It did not allow room for the loving hand of God in suffering, as did Elihu’s answer to the problem.<\/p>\n<p>While Job said some things about God that were harsh, he was not berated. In fact, the text says that Job spoke of God that which was right (42:8). This evidently refers to Job’s concluding words in 42:1-6, where, purified by suffering, he humbly yielded himself to God’s sovereign will.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Job (Person) #2; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOB, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book belonging to the scriptural category called the Writings.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of the book of Job is a difficult one. The difficulty is compounded not only by the lack of ascription of authorship to any individual but also by the structure of the book which, according to some scholars, is a composite consisting of several literary works.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars who think the book is a composite work base their views on alleged incongruities existing among the various sections. The prologue (chs 1–2) and the epilogue (42:7-17), for example, are seen as separate from the body of the book because they seem to present Job as a man of perfect moral character. The dialogues, however, picture a somewhat more human Job whose utterances about God are at times brash and shocking.<\/p>\n<p>It is true that Job is depicted as a man of perfect moral character in the prologue. But it should be noted that while he refuses his wife’s suggestion to curse God, an account recorded in the prologue (2:9-10), he does not curse God in the dialogues either. The very point of the book seems to be that even one of the highest moral character must struggle with the ways of God in this world. Only after the series of misfortunes recorded in chapters 1 and 2, and the period of inner struggle that no doubt transpired during the seven days and seven nights before he began to speak (2:11-13), did Job find those deep inner questions that the book deals with. Job’s high moral character is quite evident in the dialogues, for throughout, even though he cannot comprehend God, he speaks the truth before him.<\/p>\n<p>Other portions alleged to be additions to the book are the speeches of Elihu (32–37), the discourse of God (38–41), and the discourse on wisdom in chapter 28. Some scholars think the author of the final version borrowed these existing works to provide a literary structure for his own work.<\/p>\n<p>The main structure of the book, consisting of prologue, dialogues, and an epilogue, need not necessarily be regarded as the result of a complex process of editing. The Code of Hammurabi, for example, has a similar structure, as does an ancient Egyptian work called <em>A Dispute over Suicide.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>With regard to the problem of authorship, it seems best to acknowledge that the author is anonymous. His theology is certainly Yahwistic; thus, he was probably a Hebrew. His literary skills were remarkable, for he has produced one of the finest works known through the ages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since the authorship of the book is in question, so is the date of the book. Most modern scholars place the book in the postexilic period, around the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. However, some place it toward the end of the exile. Others put it in the Solomonic era, while still others place it in the period of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>The internal evidence points to a very early setting for the book. There are no Levitical institutions cited. Job sacrifices for his family as in the period before the priesthood (1:5). The wealth of Job, given in terms of livestock, seems to reflect the patriarchal milieu (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The language of the book may also point to an early date. Certain linguistic elements indicate more archaic forms of Hebrew, as preserved in the epic material from Ugarit. It may be that Job himself lived in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. If the book—or part of it—was written then, it may represent the first written material to find its way into the biblical canon. The book may have come into its final form in the Solomonic era, when so much of the Hebrew Wisdom Literature was produced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Job belongs to the body of OT materials known as the Wisdom Literature. This literature deals with the basic issues of human life. The Israelites were not the only ancient people to produce Wisdom Literature. This type of material came out of pagan cultures as well, and often represents efforts to explain the course of human events within the structure of pagan religion.<\/p>\n<p>Several ancient works similar to the OT book of Job are known from ancient cultures. A Sumerian book exists that does not compare with the biblical book, either in literary scope or depth of feeling. It depicts the plight of a young man whose sorrow was turned to joy as a result of extended pleading to his personal deity. According to Sumerian thought, the gods were responsible for evil as well as good. Only placation of some kind could prevent the evil they might do. There is no attempt to philosophize or expound the problem of the presence of evil in the world.<\/p>\n<p>A Babylonian book, commonly titled <em>I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom,<\/em> is philosophically similar to the Sumerian <em>Job.<\/em> In the work the writer describes his suffering in vivid terminology. No one can help him. He wonders whether the ritual obligations of his pagan religion really are pleasing to a god. An emissary of the god Marduk appears to him in a dream and relieves his suffering. The work ends with a section of praise to Marduk in which occurs the affirmation that the offerings he gave the gods served to gladden the hearts of the gods.<\/p>\n<p>Another work, “A Dialogue about Human Misery,” is also similar to the biblical book of Job. It struggles with the fact that worship of the deities seems to make no difference in the quality of one’s life. A figure in this work reminds the sufferer that the ways of the gods are difficult to understand, and man is naturally perverse. The sufferer appeals to the gods, but the dialogue ends at that point with no resolution to the problem.<\/p>\n<p>These literary works are not comparable to the OT book of Job theologically or philosophically. They offer only a fatalistic outlook on life and understand life to be governed by the capricious will of the gods. However, these documents, which date variously between the second and first millennia <span>BC<\/span>, may provide us with the literary ground from which the book of Job sprang. That is, the book of Job may present the inspired answer to the deep questions that were being considered at this time in history. Thus, this type of literature may argue for an early date for the book of Job.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The question of the central purpose of the book of Job has been a serious one in biblical scholarship for ages. It is difficult to assert that the purpose of the book is to present the solution to the problem of evil, for at the very point where an answer is expected, God asks questions instead of giving answers.<\/p>\n<p>Some have suggested that the central purpose is to answer the question “Why do the righteous suffer?” It is true that the book has much to do with this question, but it too presents various problems. When one comes to the end of the book, he or she has only the words of the comforters and the statements of Elihu relating to that question—not a great deal at all. Then one may wonder why we were given the long dialogues with their record of Job’s internal struggles. When God speaks from the whirlwind, we find no concern to explain why the righteous suffer. Job is simply led to accept his place in the universe.<\/p>\n<p>It seems best to adopt another approach to the book. In attempting to find the central theme of any literary work, one should look to the prologue and the epilogue. In the prologue one can see what the author intends to do, and in the epilogue the reader will find the author’s understanding of what the author actually has done.<\/p>\n<p>In the prologue of Job, the author deftly establishes an atmosphere of suspense. We are told of Job’s perfect moral character. Then Satan taunts, “Take away everything he has, and he will surely curse you to your face!” (1:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). We wonder whether Job will curse God and thus deny his faith, but then we hear his great affirmation of trust: “The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me everything I had, and the <span>Lord<\/span> has taken it away. Praise the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>!” (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>The writer then sets up another suspenseful situation when Satan proposes to afflict Job. To this trial is added the discouraging words of Job’s wife: “Curse God and die.” Again we wonder whether this trial will destroy Job’s faith. The suspense is broken when we read that “in all this, Job said nothing wrong” (2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The writer then introduces Job’s friends into the narrative. We are told that they remained silent for seven days. We wonder what is going on in Job’s mind. Is he still the man of staunch faith, or is his trust being eroded as the disease eats at his flesh? When Job speaks and curses the day of his birth, the suspense becomes intense. The writer has raised a question in our minds: Will Job’s faith remain secure?<\/p>\n<p>At times we think it will. Job makes several great affirmations of faith. He states that God will vindicate him. One of the greatest affirmations of the book occurs in 19:25-27 (<span>nlt<\/span>): “But as for me, I know that my Redeemer lives, and that he will stand upon the earth at last. And after my body has decayed, yet in my body I will see God! I will see him for myself. Yes, I will see him with my own eyes. I am overwhelmed at the thought!” At other times Job expresses deep doubts about God’s orderly control of the universe. The suspense continues. Throughout the dialogues we trace the pattern of Job’s struggle. It is an emotional struggle in which Job speaks from the depths of despair and the heights of triumphant faith.<\/p>\n<p>In the epilogue the suspense is resolved. Job’s trials have not destroyed or even eroded his faith. He emerges triumphant, with a humble faith. He can finally say to God, “I know that you can do anything, and no one can stop you. You ask, ‘Who is this that questions my wisdom with such ignorance?’ It is I. And I was talking about things I did not understand, things far too wonderful for me” (42:2-3, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the writer is clear. At the outset he has raised the question “Will Job’s faith endure in spite of trial?” The dialogues have heightened the suspense, and the epilogue resolves it. Job has remained faithful to God in the midst of his suffering. We learn that Job’s faith is genuine.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Job, therefore, is a treatise on faith and the role that suffering plays in faith. The book of Job teaches that the truly righteous person will remain faithful to God in spite of the seeming delay of God’s justice. He may not be able to comprehend all that God does in history, but his faith in God’s good plan and wise providence will remain secure. This aspect of faith is one facet of the total spectrum of faith in the Bible. It does not allow for works but is totally dependent on God.<\/p>\n<p>The same relationship between faith and suffering may be found in the NT as well. In James 1:12 trials and faithfulness are woven together in the word “Blessed is the man who endures trial, for when he has stood the test he will receive the crown of life which God has promised to those who love him” (<span>rsv<\/span>; see also 1 Pt 1:3-7). According to these passages, trials provide the test of faith and thus reveal whether one’s faith is true or false. Faith that is not true will not stand the test of suffering (Mt 13:20-21). The book of Job connects faith and trials; it portrays the nature of a genuine faith, a faith unbroken by suffering.<\/p>\n<p>There are other principles in this rich book. It teaches that sin brings punishment. There is truth in the words of the comforters that is corroborated by Scripture. Yet this is but a small part of the role of suffering in life. The book also teaches that suffering has a didactic function, for it is chastening from the Almighty. In the section in which God speaks from the whirlwind, we learn that suffering is part of the structure of things and that we must submit to the wisdom of the Creator. In this section God reveals himself personally. Job could say, “I had heard about you before, but now I have seen you with my own eyes” (42:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). When we experience trials, we need a God who is near much more than a philosophical treatise on the problem of evil. Another emphasis is the role of suffering in producing true righteousness. While Job was depicted as a righteous man at the beginning of the book, his righteousness lacked what suffering could give it. At the end of the book, Job is a more humble man, one who sees his role in the universe and who has submitted to the wisdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Prologue (1:1–2:13)<\/h5>\n<p>This section of the book describes the events that led to the suffering of Job. He is pictured at the outset as a man of wealth with a family for whom he cared deeply.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic scene set in heaven, Satan appears and is asked by the Lord, “Have you noticed my servant Job? He is the finest man in all the earth—a man of complete integrity. He fears God and will have nothing to do with evil” (1:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Satan’s reply is “But take away everything he has, and he will surely curse you to your face!” (v 11). There follows the first of Job’s great calamities, the loss of his family and his possessions.<\/p>\n<p>Another encounter between the Lord and Satan leads to the physical suffering of Job. It is this loathsome disease that provides the context for the dialogues that follow. In all of this the writer is careful to tell us that Job did not sin. He has resisted his wife’s plea to curse God. He has resisted the temptation to forsake God because of the loss of his children. But suddenly the placid picture ends with dialogues as we listen to Job’s complaints. We wonder, has Job given up his faith in God?<\/p>\n<p>Three of Job’s friends have come to comfort him. They sit silent in his presence for seven days, reluctant to speak. After the period of silence they begin their dialogues with Job.<\/p>\n<h5>The Dialogues (3:1–31:40)<\/h5>\n<h6>The First Cycle (3:1–14:22)<\/h6>\n<p>Job’s complaint, recorded in chapter 3, questions the wisdom of God in allowing him to be born. He wonders why life was given to one whose lot in life is to suffer.<\/p>\n<p>Eliphaz is the first of Job’s friends to speak. A polite man on the surface, he is heartless underneath. His answer is that Job must have sinned—why else would he be suffering so (4:7-11)? Eliphaz clearly believes that Job’s questioning represents a negative attitude toward God. He appeals to Job to trust in the Lord (4:8) and give up his vexation toward God, since his anger will lead only to ruin (5:2). He sees a positive element in suffering, for he affirms that it is chastening from the Almighty (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>Job responds by pointing out that his vexation is warranted in view of the terrible suffering he is enduring (6:1-7). He also complains that Eliphaz is in the wrong in not showing him kindness, likening him to a wadi in the desert that offers no water in the hot, dry season (vv 14-23).<\/p>\n<p>The next comforter, Bildad, is even more heartless than Eliphaz. He, too, repeats the accusation that Job has sinned. His pitiless attitude is evident in his reference to Job’s children, blaming their deaths on probable sin in their lives (8:4).<\/p>\n<p>Bildad, like Eliphaz, appeals to Job to turn to God (8:5), assuring him that God will surely respond (v 6). He pictures Job’s misfortunes as the result of turning from God (vv 11-19) but assures him that God will not reject a blameless man (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s response to Bildad begins with a poignant question: “How can a person be declared innocent in the eyes of God?” (9:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This question is followed by an eloquent statement in which Job pictures the magnitude of God’s power as seen in the universe (vv 3-12). Job stands before the mighty God completely helpless to withstand his power. He protests that he cannot contend with such a God, nor protest his innocence before him, for he is too powerful to oppose.<\/p>\n<p>Job also complains that he cannot gain a fair hearing from God because God believes him guilty. The fact that God has punished him with his affliction proves that he does not regard him as innocent (9:14-24). Job continues his response and again questions God’s wisdom in bringing him into existence (10:18-22).<\/p>\n<p>The next to speak is Zophar. He also accuses Job of sin (11:4-6). In an insulting statement he says that God “knows those who are false, and he takes note of all their sins. An empty-headed person won’t become wise any more than a wild donkey can bear human offspring” (vv 11-12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Job’s anger is kindled by Zophar’s insulting accusations (12:2-3), and he calls on God to withdraw his hand from him and demands that God speak (13:20-28).<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Cycle (15:1–21:34)<\/h6>\n<p>The second cycle of discourses continues in the same pattern as the first. Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar continue their accusations, attributing Job’s misfortune to sin in his life. But as the narrative continues, the speakers begin to become more involved in their own assertions, and they no longer answer each other’s arguments as directly as they did in the first series of dialogues.<\/p>\n<h6>The Third Cycle (22:1–31:40)<\/h6>\n<p>In the third series of dialogues only Eliphaz and Bildad speak. The accusations of sin in Job become even more pointed and cruel. Eliphaz says, “It [your suffering] is because of your wickedness! Your guilt has no limit!” (22:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This third dialogue is unusual in that Job speaks more than he does in the others. While Bildad’s argument extends for only six verses, Job’s reply goes on for six chapters (chs 26–31).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 31 is an important one. In it Job protests his innocence. It is a chapter in which Job’s sincerity cannot be doubted. He affirms that he has been morally pure (vv 1-4), he has not been deceitful (vv 5-8), he has not been guilty of adultery (vv 9-12), he has concern for others (vv 13-23), he has not trusted in wealth (vv 24-28). He concludes with a general affirmation of his innocence (vv 29-40).<\/p>\n<p>A pattern begins to develop. Job gradually moves away from his friends in the discussion. They become more insistent on sin as the cause of his misfortunes, and Job more firmly asserts his innocence. The writer of the book deftly weaves the account so that the reader can find little that is unorthodox in the statements of the friends. Yet while we may agree with their words, we cannot approve their attitudes. It is true that sin brings punishment, but the friends emphasize only that. The next friend, Elihu, will point out another function of suffering.<\/p>\n<p>We hear the ring of truth in Job’s protestations of innocence. But if we believe Job and also believe the comforters, we have the same dilemma as Job. We do not know where the truth lies. We do not know why Job is suffering.<\/p>\n<h5>The Speech of Elihu (32:1–37:24)<\/h5>\n<p>Elihu is a young man who listens to Job and to his fellow comforters with growing impatience (32:3). He is overly sensitive about his youth (vv 6-22), but when he speaks, he reveals an understanding of suffering that is more mature than that of his companions.<\/p>\n<p>Elihu emphasizes the fact that God speaks in many ways and that suffering is chastening (33:19), which reveals the goodness of God (vv 29-33). While this thought was found in Eliphaz’s first speech (5:17), it is given greater prominence by Elihu, who emphasizes a dimension of suffering that reveals the love of God. But still one feels that the whole answer has not been given. Another dimension follows in the words of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Voice from the Whirlwind and Job’s Response (38:1–42:6)<\/h5>\n<p>God speaks in this section. He poses one question after another to Job, all having to do with some aspect of the Creation. God asks, “Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth?” Then, in a note of sarcasm, he adds, “Tell me, if you know so much” (38:4, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God refers to the seas and asks Job who made the ocean basins (38:8-11). He pictures the rising dawn and asks Job, “Have you ever commanded the morning to appear and caused the dawn to rise in the east?” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Further questions relate to light (vv 19-21), snow (vv 22-24), rain (vv 25-30), the constellations (vv 31-33), storms (vv 34-38), and animals (38:39–39:30). Job is made to realize the vastness of God’s power as revealed in the Creation. Job must have felt rather small and insignificant as he contemplated God’s might.<\/p>\n<p>But the questions are meant to accomplish more than to make Job feel small. They are meant to make him feel ashamed of his presumption as well. The sarcasm in this section is particularly biting, and one can imagine Job sinking deeper into the ash heap with each question. In the section dealing with light (38:19-21, <span>nlt<\/span>), the questions “Where does the light come from, and where does the darkness go? Can you take it to its home? Do you know how to get there?” are followed by “But of course you know all this! For you were born before it was all created, and you are so very experienced!” And in the section dealing with the constellations God asks Job, “Can you hold back the movements of the stars? Are you able to restrain the Pleiades or Orion?” (v 31).<\/p>\n<p>Job has been somewhat brash in his statements to God in the dialogues. He has demanded that God speak to him (13:22), and has accused God of injustice (19:6-7; 24:1; 27:2). Now, as he is reminded of the power of the Almighty, Job begins to recognize his proper place in the universe.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial questions in this long series are those in 40:15–41:34. Here, in an unusual sequence, God draws Job’s attention to behemoth (40:15) and leviathan (41:1). While some scholars see these as mythical figures, it is most probable that these, like the others cited throughout this section, are literary depictions of ordinary animals known for their great size and strength. It is suggested by many scholars that behemoth is the hippopotamus and leviathan the crocodile. The contexts in which these animals are described seem to support this. These references to two powerful animals end the section in which the voice of God speaks from the whirlwind. It is a section filled with suspense. At the end of it, the reader finds that Job has learned his lesson (42:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>There is an important reason for these questions that came to Job with such insistent force. Job has been led to see that he does not control the universe—God does. Job is forced to face the power of God and learn that he is only part of this vast structure that reflects God’s almighty power. By demanding that God speak to him, Job was attempting to control God. By implying that God was unjust, he was making a judgment on God, thus making himself equal, if not superior, to God. God demands that Job face the power displayed in the universe and repeat his petulant words. Job wanted a God he could control; God demands submission. Job wanted a world run his way; God created a world to be run his way. Job had manufactured an illusory God, one who should obey his own whims. By recognizing God’s sovereign control in this world, he is led to see that suffering has a purpose. Job may not recognize that purpose, but it is part of the creation of the Almighty. It is no wonder that Job begins to enter into a settled peace and acknowledge God’s sovereignty (42:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>This section of questions is followed by a poignant response from Job. He confesses God’s might (42:2). He admits that he did not fully understand things too wonderful for him (v 3), and he repents in dust and ashes (v 6).<\/p>\n<h5>The Epilogue (42:7-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The final part of the book begins with a denunciation of Job’s comforters. They are condemned because they did not speak that which was right (42:7). This seemed most unusual, since their words have seemed quite orthodox. Yet, in the final analysis, they did not say what was right because their answer to the problem of suffering was only a partial answer, and because it was partial, it was dangerous. It caricatured God as an austere being who used suffering only to punish sin. It did not allow room for the loving hand of God in suffering, as did Elihu’s answer to the problem.<\/p>\n<p>While Job said some things about God that were harsh, he was not berated. In fact, the text says that Job spoke of God that which was right (42:8). This evidently refers to Job’s concluding words in 42:1-6, where, purified by suffering, he humbly yielded himself to God’s sovereign will.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Job (Person) #2; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOB, Book of Old Testament book belonging to the scriptural category called the Writings. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The question of the authorship of the book of Job is a difficult one. The difficulty is compounded not only by the lack of ascription of authorship to any individual but also by the structure of the book which, according to some scholars, is a composite consisting of several literary works. Some scholars who think th...","summary_en":"JOB, Book of Old Testament book belonging to the scriptural category called the Writings. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The question of the authorship of the book of Job is a difficult one. The difficulty is compounded not only by the lack of ascription of authorship to any individual but also by the structure of the book which, according to some scholars, is a composite consisting of several literary works. Some scholars who think th...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60088,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87714,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115340,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142966,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":62486,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90112,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117738,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145364,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":16143,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hell","title_en":"Hell","content_ro":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\n<p>Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionandDescription\">Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Other expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\n<p>A summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\n<p>Although the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\n<p>Punishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalTerms\">Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>It was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>As noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJusticeofEternalPunishment\">The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\n<p>The impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\n<p>If the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\n<p>While the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\n<p>From all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\n<p>Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionandDescription\">Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Other expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\n<p>A summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\n<p>Although the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\n<p>Punishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalTerms\">Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>It was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>As noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJusticeofEternalPunishment\">The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\n<p>The impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\n<p>If the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\n<p>While the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\n<p>From all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","summary_en":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48478,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","summary_en":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76104,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","summary_en":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103730,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","summary_en":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131356,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Iov 10:20","title_en":"Study Note: Iov 10:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>10:20-22<\/strong> Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a <em>land of darkness and utter gloom<\/em> (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","summary_en":"10:20-22 Earlier, Job had painted a fairly pleasant picture of Sheol (3:13-19); now he describes it as a land of darkness and utter gloom (see also 7:9-10; 14:7-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":8648,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8926,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Place of the Dead","title_en":"Place of the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\n<p>Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\n<p>Although one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheIntertestamentalWritings\">In the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\n<p>Between the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>Along with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>During that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\n<p>All those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\n<p>The word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\n<p>Although the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\n<p>As a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\n<p>John, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>In summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\n<p>This meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Both Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\n<p>Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\n<p>Although one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheIntertestamentalWritings\">In the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\n<p>Between the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>Along with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>During that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\n<p>All those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\n<p>The word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\n<p>Although the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\n<p>As a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\n<p>John, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>In summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\n<p>This meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Both Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","summary_en":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14957,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hades*","title_en":"Hades*","content_ro":"<h3>HADES*<\/h3>\n<p>Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s <em>Odyssey<\/em> 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike existence that happened to all who died, good and evil alike. Gradually they and the Romans came to see it as a place of reward and punishment, an elaborately organized and guarded realm where the good were rewarded in the Elysian Fields and the evil were punished (so described by the Roman poet Virgil, 70–19 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Hades” became important to the Jews as the typical term used by the translators of the Septuagint to render the Hebrew name “Sheol” into Greek. This was a very suitable translation for the Hebrew term, for both words can signify the physical grave or death (Gn 37:35; Prv 5:5; 7:27), and both originally referred to a dark underworld (Jb 10:21-22) where existence was at best shadowy (Jb 38:17; Is 14:9). Sheol is described as under the ocean (Jb 26:5-6; Jon 2:2-3) and as having bars and gates (Jb 17:16). All people go there whether they are good or evil (Ps 89:48). In the earlier literature there is no hope of release from Sheol\/hades. C. S. Lewis describes this concept well in <em>The Silver Chair:<\/em> “Many sink down, and few return to the sunlit lands.” Of course, all these descriptions are in poetic literature; how literally the Hebrews (or the Greeks, for that matter) took their descriptions of hades\/Sheol is hard to say. They may have simply used the older picture-language of Greek poetry to describe that for which prose words were inadequate.<\/p>\n<p>Jew and Greek alike came in contact with Persia—the Jews at the time the postexilic writers were composing their books (e.g., Malachi, Daniel, and some psalms), and the Greeks somewhat later (they fought the Persians 520–479 <span>BC<\/span> and conquered them 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether because of Persian influence on these groups or not, during this period, the idea of reward and punishment after death developed, and Sheol\/hades changed from a shadow land to a differentiated place of reward and punishment for both Greeks (and Romans) and Jews. Josephus records that the Pharisees believed in reward and punishment at death (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.3), and a similar idea appears in 1 Enoch 22. In these and many other cases in Jewish literature, hades stands for the one place of the dead, which has two or more compartments. In other Jewish literature, hades is the place of torment for the wicked, while the righteous enter paradise (Pss of Sol 14; Wisd of Sol 2:1; 3:1). Thus, by the beginning of the NT period, hades has three meanings: (1) death, (2) the place of all the dead, and (3) the place of the wicked dead only. Context determines which meaning an author intends in a given passage.<\/p>\n<p>All these meanings appear in the NT. In Matthew 11:23 and Luke 10:15, Jesus speaks of Capernaum’s descending to hades (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Most likely he simply means that the city will “die” or be destroyed. “Hades” means “death” in this context, as “heaven” means “exaltation.” Revelation 6:8 also exemplifies this: Death comes on a horse, and hades (a symbol of death) comes close behind. This personification of hades probably comes from the OT, where hades\/Sheol is viewed as a monster that devours people (Prv 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Is 5:14; 28:15, 18; Hb 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 16:18 is a more difficult use of hades. The church will be built upon a rock and the gates of hades will not prevail against it. Here the place of the dead (complete with gates and bars) is a symbol for death: Christians may in fact be killed, but death (the gates of hades) will no more hold them than it held Christ. He who burst out of hades will bring his people out as well. This is also the meaning of Acts 2:27 (quoting Ps 16:10): Christ did not stay dead; his life did not remain in hades; unlike David, he rose from the dead. It is uncertain in either of these cases whether hades is simply a symbol for death or whether it means that Christ and the Christian actually went to a place of the dead called hades; probably the former is intended. Whatever the case, since Christ did rise, he has conquered death and hades. He appears in Revelation 1:18 as the one holding the keys (the control) to both.<\/p>\n<p>Two NT passages refer to hades as the place where the dead exist: Revelation 20:13-14 and Luke 16:23. In Revelation 20 hades is emptied of all who are in it (either all dead or the wicked dead, depending on one’s eschatology)—the resurrection is complete. When the wicked are judged and cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), hades is also thrown in. Luke 16:23, however, clearly refers to hades as the place of the wicked dead. There the rich man is tormented in a flame, while the poor man, Lazarus, goes to paradise (Abraham’s bosom).<\/p>\n<p>Hades, then, means three things in the NT, as it did in Jewish literature: (1) Death and its power is the most frequent meaning, especially in metaphorical uses. (2) It also means the place of the dead in general, when a writer wants to lump all the dead together. (3) It means, finally, the place where the wicked dead are tormented before the final judgment. This is its narrowest meaning, occurring only once in the NT (Lk 16:23). The Bible does not dwell on this torment—Dante’s picture in <em>The Inferno<\/em> draws on later speculation and Greco-Roman conceptions of hades more than on the Bible.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Gehenna; Hell; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HADES*<\/h3>\n<p>Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s <em>Odyssey<\/em> 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike existence that happened to all who died, good and evil alike. Gradually they and the Romans came to see it as a place of reward and punishment, an elaborately organized and guarded realm where the good were rewarded in the Elysian Fields and the evil were punished (so described by the Roman poet Virgil, 70–19 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Hades” became important to the Jews as the typical term used by the translators of the Septuagint to render the Hebrew name “Sheol” into Greek. This was a very suitable translation for the Hebrew term, for both words can signify the physical grave or death (Gn 37:35; Prv 5:5; 7:27), and both originally referred to a dark underworld (Jb 10:21-22) where existence was at best shadowy (Jb 38:17; Is 14:9). Sheol is described as under the ocean (Jb 26:5-6; Jon 2:2-3) and as having bars and gates (Jb 17:16). All people go there whether they are good or evil (Ps 89:48). In the earlier literature there is no hope of release from Sheol\/hades. C. S. Lewis describes this concept well in <em>The Silver Chair:<\/em> “Many sink down, and few return to the sunlit lands.” Of course, all these descriptions are in poetic literature; how literally the Hebrews (or the Greeks, for that matter) took their descriptions of hades\/Sheol is hard to say. They may have simply used the older picture-language of Greek poetry to describe that for which prose words were inadequate.<\/p>\n<p>Jew and Greek alike came in contact with Persia—the Jews at the time the postexilic writers were composing their books (e.g., Malachi, Daniel, and some psalms), and the Greeks somewhat later (they fought the Persians 520–479 <span>BC<\/span> and conquered them 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether because of Persian influence on these groups or not, during this period, the idea of reward and punishment after death developed, and Sheol\/hades changed from a shadow land to a differentiated place of reward and punishment for both Greeks (and Romans) and Jews. Josephus records that the Pharisees believed in reward and punishment at death (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.3), and a similar idea appears in 1 Enoch 22. In these and many other cases in Jewish literature, hades stands for the one place of the dead, which has two or more compartments. In other Jewish literature, hades is the place of torment for the wicked, while the righteous enter paradise (Pss of Sol 14; Wisd of Sol 2:1; 3:1). Thus, by the beginning of the NT period, hades has three meanings: (1) death, (2) the place of all the dead, and (3) the place of the wicked dead only. Context determines which meaning an author intends in a given passage.<\/p>\n<p>All these meanings appear in the NT. In Matthew 11:23 and Luke 10:15, Jesus speaks of Capernaum’s descending to hades (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Most likely he simply means that the city will “die” or be destroyed. “Hades” means “death” in this context, as “heaven” means “exaltation.” Revelation 6:8 also exemplifies this: Death comes on a horse, and hades (a symbol of death) comes close behind. This personification of hades probably comes from the OT, where hades\/Sheol is viewed as a monster that devours people (Prv 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Is 5:14; 28:15, 18; Hb 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 16:18 is a more difficult use of hades. The church will be built upon a rock and the gates of hades will not prevail against it. Here the place of the dead (complete with gates and bars) is a symbol for death: Christians may in fact be killed, but death (the gates of hades) will no more hold them than it held Christ. He who burst out of hades will bring his people out as well. This is also the meaning of Acts 2:27 (quoting Ps 16:10): Christ did not stay dead; his life did not remain in hades; unlike David, he rose from the dead. It is uncertain in either of these cases whether hades is simply a symbol for death or whether it means that Christ and the Christian actually went to a place of the dead called hades; probably the former is intended. Whatever the case, since Christ did rise, he has conquered death and hades. He appears in Revelation 1:18 as the one holding the keys (the control) to both.<\/p>\n<p>Two NT passages refer to hades as the place where the dead exist: Revelation 20:13-14 and Luke 16:23. In Revelation 20 hades is emptied of all who are in it (either all dead or the wicked dead, depending on one’s eschatology)—the resurrection is complete. When the wicked are judged and cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), hades is also thrown in. Luke 16:23, however, clearly refers to hades as the place of the wicked dead. There the rich man is tormented in a flame, while the poor man, Lazarus, goes to paradise (Abraham’s bosom).<\/p>\n<p>Hades, then, means three things in the NT, as it did in Jewish literature: (1) Death and its power is the most frequent meaning, especially in metaphorical uses. (2) It also means the place of the dead in general, when a writer wants to lump all the dead together. (3) It means, finally, the place where the wicked dead are tormented before the final judgment. This is its narrowest meaning, occurring only once in the NT (Lk 16:23). The Bible does not dwell on this torment—Dante’s picture in <em>The Inferno<\/em> draws on later speculation and Greco-Roman conceptions of hades more than on the Bible.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Gehenna; Hell; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HADES* Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s Odyssey 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike e...","summary_en":"HADES* Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s Odyssey 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike e...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34949,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheol*","title_en":"Sheol*","content_ro":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>It is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the <span>Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, <span>rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\n<p>Sheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hades<\/span><em>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>It is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the <span>Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, <span>rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\n<p>Sheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hades<\/span><em>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","summary_en":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60067,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63194,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87693,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90820,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115319,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118446,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142945,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146072,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}